Results: We analyzed 1,402 surveys and 15 in-depth interviews. Many (32%) CL participants reported greater difficulty refilling medications and a minority (14%) reported greater difficulty accessing HIV care during the pandemic. Most (99%) Opt4Mamas participants reported no difficulty refilling medications or accessing HIV/pregnancy care. Among the CL participants, older women were less likely (aOR = 0.95, 95% CI: 0.92–0.98) and women with more children were more likely (aOR = 1.13, 95% CI: 1.00–1.28) to report difficulty refilling medications. Only 2% of (...) CL participants reported greater difficulty managing FP and most (95%) reported no change in likelihood of using FP or desire to get pregnant. Qualitative analysis revealed three major themes: (1) adverse organizational/economic implications of the pandemic, (2) increased importance of pregnancy prevention during the pandemic, and (3) fear of contracting COVID-19. (shrink)

This article presents some overlooked evidence on the reception of John Locke’s writings at Christ Church, Oxford. It is intended to supplement a new article in the History of Universities on the surprisingly positive response to Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) at that bastion of late seventeenth-century high churchmanship. This evidence sheds new light on: the reception of Epicureanism at that college in the 1650s; Locke’s personal connections at Christ Church; book-holdings of Locke’s writings at the early eighteenth-century college; (...) some unnoticed uses of Locke’s writings by members of Christ Church; the European and North American reception of one Christ Church Lockean; and, the changing trajectory of the later eighteenth-century reception of Locke at that college. (shrink)

ABSTRACT The individual-community relationship has always been one of the most fundamental topics of social sciences. In sociology, this is known as the micro-macro relationship while in economics it refers to the processes, through which, individual actions lead to macroeconomic phenomena. Based on philosophical discourse and systems theory, many sociologists even use the term "emergence" in their understanding of micro-macro relationship, which refers to collective phenomena that are created by the cooperation of individuals, but cannot be reduced to individual actions. (...) "Emergence" theories attempt to explain the nature of society as a complex system by examining how individuals and their relationships lead to the creation of integrated and macro-social phenomena such as markets, educational systems, cultural beliefs, and shared social practices. As a prelude to activity, every researcher has to answer the question from the methodological point of view, how is it possible to study the behavior of social groups and how can we gain knowledge about the laws related to social groups? Anyone who deals with humanities and social sciences or any reality and phenomenon that affects human beings, inevitably deals with the reality that is emerging. In fact, emergence occurs when one level of reality emerges radically from another level. Examples of emergent levels of reality include how the mind emerges from the body; or the way society emerges from human beings. Therefore, when there is an emerging factor, different scientific disciplines should be used, because it is inevitable to talk about social affairs, psychology and neurobiology, as well as physical and even chemical. -/- INTRODUCTION Since its beginning in the 19th century, sociology has faced the fundamental question of what a social phenomena stands for? At a glance, sociologists deal with the study of social groups, collective behavior, institutions, social structures, social networks, and social dynamics, and ultimately all such phenomena are composed of individuals. Therefore, social phenomena seem to have no independent ontological status, and in this case, sociology is ultimately about reducible individuals. Different approaches about the micro-macro relationship, using the concept of "emergence", argue that although collective phenomena are created by individuals, they cannot be reduced to individual action. The term "emergence" is used to distinguish "emergent results" from " Procedural results". Results are called Procedural that can only be calculated by adding or subtracting the causes that act together. On the contrary, they are emergent outcomes that are qualitatively novel compared to the causes from which they originate. An example of such emergent results is mental characteristics that emerge from neural processes, but are not considered among the characteristics of neural processes of components - which are their origin. Philosophical debates about emergentism and reductionism focus on the mind-brain relationship, but as many philosophers have noted, they can be generalized to apply to any hierarchical set of features. The cognitive revolution reactivated a 19th century controversy between theorists of Identity and dualism. The theorists of Identity believe in reductionist materialism and elimination of metaphysics, according to which the mind is nothing more than the biological, while the dualists believe that the mind and the brain are distinct from each other. Emergence has been considered as a third way between the theories of Identity and dualism. -/- METHODOLOGY Interdisciplinarity Is fundamentally indicated by the dominance of open systems as well as social and emerging systems at different levels. Therefore, as long as we are facing a new emergentism, there will necessarily be different fields and an interdisciplinary method. The commonality of social sciences and cognitive sciences on the issue of emergence provides the possibility of interaction and exchange of concepts between these two for deeper research. Therefore, in this research, apart from the concepts of Subvenience and downward causation, we have used multiple realization and wildly disjunctive, which are used to explain the emerging concept in cognitive sciences, including neurobiology, psychology, and philosophy. For analytical and interdisciplinary approaches, after examining the concepts of subvenience, and wildly disjunctive, Individualistic and collectivist emergentism have been reviewed. And then their adequacy is criticized and evaluated in meeting strong emergence conditions. -/- FINDINGS Philosophers of the mind have been able to define the conditions of irreducibility and downward causation, which are essential for strong emergence, by using the principle of subvenience with the help of multiple realization and wildly disjunctive principles. Therefore, by definition, emergentist individualism suffers from the problem of how to explain downward causality and irreducibility, and emergentist collectivism faces the challenge of reification. The analysis of the challenges facing the two methodological approaches of individualism and collectivism leads us to three unresolved issues about the emerging phenomenon, which are realism, downward causality, and mechanism. Despite the differences in the stances of these two approaches regarding the aforementioned triple problems, individualists and collectivists both agree that some social characteristics are reducible; and some others are irreducible due to their complexity, the determination of which, depends on the case study of the mechanism of emergence of each social characteristic. -/- CONCLUSION An emergence that is consistent with reductionism is called a weak emergence. And strong emergence includes the principle of irreducibility and downward causality. According to strong emergence, the characteristics of social phenomena have downward causal power, which cannot be reduced to the causal forces. The principle of subvenience, together with multiple realization and wildly disjunctive, can provide the conditions of irreducibility and downward causality, which are essential conditions of strong emergence. Based on the philosophical analysis of two methodological approaches, individualist and collectivist, it can be concluded that emergentist individualism suffers from the problem of how to explain downward causality and irreducibility, and reification collectivism faces the challenge of reification. The analysis of the problems faced by these two approaches leads us to three unresolved issues, which are realism, downward causality, and mechanism. individualist emergentists acknowledge the existence of emergent social characteristics, but despite this, they believe that these characteristics are not real but merely analytical constructs that require explanation based on individuals and their mutual actions. But collectivists argue that emergentism yields a categorical ontology and supports social realism. They accept the dependence of social characteristics on individuals, but claim that social entities and structures are ontologically independent. Individualists and collectivists both agree that some social characteristics are reducible; and others are irreducible due to their complexity; and the only way to recognize this is to engage in empirical studies of the mechanisms and temporal processes of "emergence" that create social characteristics. -/- NOVELTY The newness of this compact article is as follows: a) Presenting an interdisciplinary approach using the analysis of philosophy of cognitive sciences, including the philosophy of mind, neurobiology and psychology to formulate the issue of social emergence; b) Criticizing individualist and collectivist methodological approaches to the issue of social emergence and explaining the sufficiency and shortcomings of both in providing weak and strong emerging conditions; c) Explaining and categorizing the challenges facing methodological approaches in explaining the phenomenon of social emergence, in three categories: realism, downward causality, and mechanism. BIBLIOGRAPHY Beckermann, A., Flohr, H., & Kim, J. (eds.) (1992). Emergence or reduction? Essays on the prospects of nonreductive physicalism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Bhaskar, R. (1979). The possibility of Naturalism. New York: Routledge. Bhaskar, R., Danermark, B. & Price, L. (2018). Interdisciplinarity and wellbeing: A critical realist general theory of interdisciplinarity. London and New York: Routledge. Blau, P.M. (1981). Introduction: diverse views of social structure and their common denominator. In Blau, P.M. & Merton, R.K. (eds.), Continuity in Structural Inquiry (pp. 1–23). Beverly Hills: Sage. Blau, P.M. (1987). Microprocess and macrostructure. In K.S. Cook (ed.), Social Exchange Theory (pp. 83–100). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Brooks, R.A., & Maes, P. (eds). (1994). Artificial life IV; proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systems. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Clark, A. (1997). Being there: Putting brain, body, and world together again. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Coleman, J. S. (1987). Microfoundations and macrosocial behavior. In: J. C. Alexander, B. Giesen, R. Munch, & Neil J. Smelser (Eds.). The Micro-Macro Link (pp. 153–73). Berkeley: University of California. Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Elster, J. (1985). Making sense of Marx. New York: Cambridge University Press. Fodor, J.A. (1974). Special sciences (Or: The disunity of science as a working hypothesis). Synthese, 28(2), 97–115. Fodor, J.A. (1989). Making mind matter more. Philosophical Topics, 17, 59-79. Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hempel, C.G. (1965). Aspects of scientific explanation and other essays in the philosophy of science. New York: The Free Press. Horgan, T. (1993). From supervenience to superdupervenience: meeting the demands of a material world. Mind, 102, 555-586. Humphreys, P. (1997). How properties emerge”. Philosophy of Science, 64, 1-17. Kim, J. (1999). Making sense of emergence. Philosophical Studies, 95, 3–36. Kincaid, H. (1997). Individualism and the unity of science. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Lewis, D.K. (1986). The plurality of worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nigel, G., & Conte, R. (eds.) (1995). Artificial societies; The computer simulation of social life. London: UCL Press. O’Connor, T. (1994). Emergent properties. American Philosophical Quarterly, 31, 91-104. Popper, K.R. (1968). Conjectures and refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. New York: Harper & Row. Sawyer, R. K. (2001). Emergence in sociology: contemporary philosophy of mind and some implications for sociological theory. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 551-585. Sawyer, R. K. (2004). The mechanisms of emergence. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 34, 260–282. Sawyer, R. K. (2005). Social emergence: societies as complex systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sawyer, R.K. (2003). Nonreductive individualism: Part 2, Social causation. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 33, 203–224. Winch, P. (1993). The idea of a social science and its relation to philosophy‭ (SAMT, Trans.). Tehran, Iran: SAMT. (shrink)

continent. 1.1 : 3-13. / 0/ – Introduction I want to propose, as a trajectory into the philosophically weird, an absurd theoretical claim and pursue it, or perhaps more accurately, construct it as I point to it, collecting the ground work behind me like the Perpetual Train from China Mieville's Iron Council which puts down track as it moves reclaiming it along the way. The strange trajectory is the following: Kant's critical philosophy and much of continental philosophy which has followed, (...) has been a defense against horror and madness. Kant's prohibition on speculative metaphysics such as dogmatic metaphysics and transcendental realism, on thinking beyond the imposition of transcendental and moral constraints, has been challenged by numerous figures proceeding him. One of the more interesting critiques of Kant comes from the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land stating, “Kant’s critical philosophy is the most elaborate fit of panic in the history of the Earth.” And while Alain Badiou would certainly be opposed to the libidinal investments of Land's Deleuzo-Guattarian thought, he is likewise critical of Kant's normative thought-bureaucracies: Kant is the one author for whom I cannot feel any kinship. Everything in him exasperates me, above all his legalism—always asking Quid Juris? Or ‘Haven’t you crossed the limit?’—combined, as in today’s United States, with a religiosity that is all the more dismal in that it is both omnipresent and vague. The critical machinery he set up has enduringly poisoned philosophy, while giving great succour to the academy, which loves nothing more than to rap the knuckles of the overambitious [….] That is how I understand the truth of Monique David-Menard’s reflections on the properly psychotic origins of Kantianism. I am persuaded that the whole of the critical enterprise is set up to to shield against the tempting symptom represented by the seer Swedenborg, or against ‘diseases of the head’, as Kant puts it. An entire nexus of the limits of reason and philosophy are set up here, namely that the critical philosophy not only defends thought from madness, philosophy from madness, and philosophy from itself, but that philosophy following the advent of the critical enterprise philosophy becomes auto-vampiric; feeding on itself to support the academy. Following Francois Laruelle's non-philosophical indictment of philosophy, we could go one step further and say that philosophy operates on the material of what is philosophizable and not the material of the external world. [1] Beyond this, the Kantian scheme of nestling human thinking between our limited empirical powers and transcendental guarantees of categorical coherence, forms of thinking which stretch beyond either appear illegitimate, thereby liquefying both pre-critical metaphysics and the ravings of the mad in the same critical acid. In rejecting the Kantian apparatus we are left with two entities – an unsure relation of thought to reality where thought is susceptible to internal and external breakdown and a reality with an uncertain sense of stability. These two strands will be pursued, against the sane-seal of post-Kantian philosophy by engaging the work of weird fiction authors H.P. Lovecraft and Thomas Ligotti. The absolute inhumanism of the formers universe will be used to describe a Shoggothic Materialism while the dream worlds of the latter will articulate the mad speculation of a Ventriloquil Idealism. But first we must address the relation of philosophy to madness as well as philosophy to weird fiction. /1/ – Philosophy and Madness There is nothing that the madness of men invents which is not either nature made manifest or nature restored. Michel Foucault. Madness and Civilization. The moment I doubt whether an event that I recall actually took place, I bring the suspicion of madness upon myself: unless I am uncertain as to whether it was not a mere dream. Arthur Schopenhauer. The World as Will and Idea, Vol. 3. Madness is commonly thought of as moving through several well known cultural-historical shifts from madness as a demonic or otherwise theological force, to rationalization, to medicalization psychiatric and otherwise. Foucault's Madness and Civilization is well known for orientating madness as a form of exclusionary social control which operated by demarcating madness from reason. Yet Foucault points to the possibility of madness as the necessity of nature at least prior to the crushing weight of the church. Kant’s philosophy as a response to madness is grounded by his humanizing of madness itself. As Adrian Johnston points out in the early pages of Time Driven pre-Kantian madness meant humans were seized by demonic or angelic forces whereas Kantian madness became one of being too human. Madness becomes internalized, the external demonic forces become flaws of the individual mind. Foucault argues that, while madness is de-demonized it is also dehumanized during the Renaissance, as madmen become creatures neither diabolic nor totally human reduced to the zero degree of humanity. It is immediately clear why for Kant, speculative metaphysics must be curbed – with the problem of internal madness and without the external safeguards of transcendental conditions, there is nothing to formally separate the speculative capacities for metaphysical diagnosis from the mad ramblings of the insane mind – both equally fall outside the realm of practicality and quotidian experience. David-Menard's work is particularly useful in diagnosing the relation of thought and madness in Kant's texts. David-Menard argues that in Kant's relatively unknown “An Essay on the Maladies of the Mind” as well as his later discussion of the Seer of Swedenborg, that Kant formulates madness primarily in terms of sensory upheaval or other hallucinatory theaters. She writes: “madness is an organization of thought. It is made possible by the ambiguity of the normal relation between the imaginary and the perceived, whether this pertains to the order of sensation or to the relations between our ideas” Kant's fascination with the Seer forces Kant between the pincers of “aesthetic reconciliation” – namely melancholic withdrawal – and “a philosophical invention” – namely the critical project. Deleuze and Guattari's schizoanalysis is a combination and reversal of Kant's split, where an aesthetic over engagement with the world entails prolific conceptual invention. Their embrace of madness, however, is of course itself conceptual despite all their rhizomatic maneuvers. Though they move with the energy of madness, Deleuze and Guattari save the capacity of thought from the fangs of insanity by imbuing materiality itself with the capacity for thought. Or, as Ray Brassier puts it, “Deleuze insists, it is necessary to absolutize the immanence of this world in such a way as to dissolve the transcendent disjunction between things as we know them and as they are in themselves”. That is, whereas Kant relied on the faculty of judgment to divide representation from objectivity Deleuze attempts to flatten the whole economy beneath the juggernaut of ontological univocity. Speculation, as a particularly useful form of madness, might fall close to Deleuze and Guattari’s shaping of philosophy into a concept producing machine but is different in that it is potentially self destructive – less reliant on the stability of its own concepts and more adherent to exposing a particular horrifying swath of reality. Speculative madness is always a potential disaster in that it acknowledges little more than its own speculative power with the hope that the gibbering of at least a handful of hysterical brains will be useful. Pre-critical metaphysics amounts to madness, though this may be because the world itself is mad while new attempts at speculative metaphysics, at post-Kantian pre-critical metaphysics, are well aware of our own madness. Without the sobriety of the principle of sufficient reason we have a world of neon madness: “we would have to conceive what our life would be if all the movements of the earth, all the noises of the earth, all the smells, the tastes, all the light – of the earth and elsewhere, came to us in a moment, in an instant – like an atrocious screaming tumult of things”. Speculative thought may be participatory in the screaming tumult of the world or, worse yet, may produce its spectral double. Against theology or reason or simply commonsense, the speculative becomes heretical. Speculation, as the cognitive extension of the horrorific sublime should be met with melancholic detachment. Whereas Kant's theoretical invention, or productivity of thought, is self -sabotaging, since the advent of the critical project is a productivity of thought which then delimits the engine of thought at large either in dogmatic gestures or non-systematizable empirical wondrousness. The former is celebrated by the fiction of Thomas Ligotti whereas the latter is espoused by the tales of H.P. Lovecraft. /2/ – Weird Fiction and Philosophy. Supernatural horror, in all its eerie constructions, enables a reader to taste treats inconsistent with his personal welfare. Thomas Ligotti Songs of a Dead Dreamer. I choose weird stories because they suit my inclination best—one of my strongest and most persistent wishes being to achieve,momentarily, the illusion of some strange suspension or violation of the galling limitations of time, space, and natural law which forever imprison us and frustrate our curiosity about the infinite cosmic spaces beyond the radius of our sight and analysis H.P. Lovecraft. “Notes on Writing Weird Fiction” Lovecraft states that his creation of a story is to suspend natural law yet, at the same time, he indexes the tenuousness of such laws, suggesting the vast possibilities of the cosmic. The tension that Lovecraft sets up between his own fictions and the universe or nature is reproduced within his fictions in the common theme of the unreliable narrator; unreliable precisely because they are either mad or what they have witnessed questions the bounds of material reality. In “The Call of Cthulhu” Lovecraft writes: The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents. We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the deadly light into the peace and safety of a new dark age. Despite Lovecraft's invocations of illusion, he is not claiming that his fantastic creations such as the Old Ones are supernatural but, following Joshi, are only ever supernormal. One can immediately see that instead of nullifying realism Lovecraft in fact opens up the real to an unbearable degree. In various letters and non-fictional statements Lovecraft espoused strictly materialist tenets, ones which he borrowed from Hugh Elliot namely the uniformity of law, the denial of teleology and the denial of non-material existence. Lovecraft seeks to explore the possibilities of such a universe by piling horror upon horror until the fragile brain which attempts to grasp it fractures. This may be why philosophy has largely ignored weird fiction – while Deleuze and Guattari mark the turn towards weird fiction and Lovecraft in particular, with the precursors to speculative realism as well as contemporary related thinkers have begun to view Lovecraft as making philosophical contributions. Lovecraft's own relation to philosophy is largely critical while celebrating Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. This relationship of Lovecraft to philosophy and philosophy to Lovecraft is coupled with Lovecraft's habit of mercilessly destroying the philosopher and the figure of the academic more generally in his work, a destruction which is both an epistemological destruction and an ontological destruction. Thomas Ligotti's weird fiction which he has designated as a kind of “confrontational escapism” might be best described in the following quote from one of his shortstories, “The human phenomenon is but the sum of densely coiled layers of illusion each of which winds itself on the supreme insanity. That there are persons of any kind when all there can be is mindless mirrors laughing and screaming as they parade about in an endless dream”. Whereas Lovecraft's weirdness draws predominantly from the abyssal depths of the uncharted universe, Ligotti's existential horror focuses on the awful proliferation of meaningless surfaces that is, the banal and every day function of representation. In an interview, Ligotti states: We don't even know what the world is like except through our sense organs, which are provably inadequate. It's no less the case with our brains. Our whole lives are motored along by forces we cannot know and perceptions that are faulty. We sometimes hear people say that they're not feeling themselves. Well, who or what do they feel like then? This is not to say that Ligotti sees nothing beneath the surface but that there is only darkness or blackness behind it, whether that surface is on the cosmological level or the personal. By addressing the implicit and explicit philosophical issues in Ligotti's work we will see that his nightmarish take on reality is a form of malevolent idealism, an idealism which is grounded in a real, albeit dark and obscure materiality. If Ligotti's horrors ultimately circle around mad perceptions which degrade the subject, it takes aim at the vast majority of the focus of continental philosophy. While Lovecraft's acidic materialism clearly assaults any romantic concept of being from the outside, Ligotti attacks consciousness from the inside: Just a little doubt slipped into the mind, a little trickle of suspicion in the bloodstream, and all those eyes of ours, one by one, open up to the world and see its horror [...] Not even the solar brilliance of a summer day will harbor you from horror. For horror eats the light and digests it into darkness. Clearly, the weird fiction of Lovecraft and Ligotti amount to a anti-anthrocentric onslaught against the ramparts of correlationist continental philosophy. /3/ – Shoggothic Materialism or the Formless Formless protoplasm able to mock and reflect all forms and organs and processes—viscous agglutinations of bubbling cells—rubbery fifteen-foot spheroids infinitely plastic and ductile—slaves of suggestion, builders of cities—more and more sullen, more and more intelligent, more and more amphibious, more and more imitative—Great God! What madness made even those blasphemous Old Ones willing to use and to carve such things? H.P. Lovecraft. “At the Mountains of Madness” On the other hand, affirming that the universe resembles nothing and is only formless amounts to saying that the universe is something like a spider or spit. Georges Bataille. “Formless”. The Shoggoths feature most prominently in H.P. Lovecraft's shortstory “At the Mountains of Madness” where they are described in the following manner: It was a terrible, indescribable thing vaster than any subway train – a shapeless congeries of protoplasmic bubbles, faintly self -luminous, and with myriads of temporary eyes forming and un-forming as pustules of greenish light all over the tunnel-filling front that bore down upon us, crushing the frantic penguins and slithering over the glistening floor that it and its kind had swept so evilly free of all litter. The term is a litmus test for materialism itself as the Shoggoth is an amorphous creature. The Shoggoths were living digging machines bio engineered by the Elder Things, and their protoplasmic bodies being formed into various tools by their hypnotic powers. The Shoggoths eventually became self aware and rose up against their masters in an ultimately failed rebellion. After the Elder Ones retreated into the oceans leaving the Shoggoths to roam the frozen wastes of the Antarctic. The onto-genesis of the Shoggoths and their gross materiality, index the horrifyingly deep time of the earth a concept near and dear to Lovecraft's formulation of horror as well as the fear of intelligences far beyond, and far before, the ascent of humankind on earth and elsewhere. The sickly amorphous nature of the Shoggoths invade materialism at large, where while materiality is unmistakably real ie not discursive, psychological, or otherwise overly subjectivist, it questions the relation of materialism to life. As Eugene Thacker writes: The Shoggoths or Elder Things do not even share the same reality with the human beings who encounter them—and yet this encounter takes place, though in a strange no-place that is neither quite that of the phenomenal world of the human subject or the noumenal world of an external reality. Amorphous yet definitively material beings are a constant in Lovecraft's tales. In his tale “The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadatth” Lovecraft describes Azathoth as, “that shocking final peril which gibbers unmentionably outside the ordered universe,” that, “last amorphous blight of nethermost confusion which blashphemes and bubbles at the centre of all infinity,” who, “gnaws hungrily in inconceivable, unlighted chambers beyond time”. Azathoth's name may have multiple origins but the most striking is the alchemy term azoth which is both a cohesive agent and a acidic creation pointing back to the generative and the decayed. The indistinction of generation and degradation materially mirrors the blur between the natural and the unnatural as well as life and non-life. Lovecraft speaks of the tension between the natural and the unnatural is his short story “The Unnameable.” He writes, “if the psychic emanations of human creatures be grotesque distortions, what coherent representation could express or portray so gibbous and infamous a nebulousity as the spectre of a malign, chaotic perversion, itself a morbid blasphemy against Nature?”. Lovecraft explores exactly the tension outlined at the beginning of this chapter, between life and thought. At the end of his short tale Lovecraft compounds the problem as the unnameable is described as “a gelatin—a slime—yet it had shapes, a thousand shapes of horror beyond all memory”. Deleuze suggests that becoming-animal is operative throughout Lovecraft's work, where narrators feel themselves reeling at their becoming non-human or of being the anomalous or of becoming atomized. Following Eugene Thacker however, it may be far more accurate to say that Lovecraft's tales exhibit not a becoming-animal but a becoming-creature. Where the monstrous breaks the purportedly fixed laws of nature, the creature is far more ontologically ambiguous. The nameless thing is an altogether different horizon for thought. The creature is either less than animal or more than animal – its becoming is too strange for animal categories and indexes the slow march of thought towards the bizarre. This strangeness is, as aways, some indefinite swirling in the category of immanence and becoming. Bataille begins “The Labyrinth” with the assertion that being, to continue to be, is becoming. More becoming means more being hence the assertion that Bataille's barking dog is more than the sponge. This would mean that the Shoggotth is altogether too much being, too much material in the materialism. Bataille suggests that there is an immanence between the eater and the eaten, across the species and never within them. That is, despite the chaotic storm of immanence there must remain some capacity to distinguish the gradients of becoming without reliance upon, or at least total dependence upon, the powers of intellection to parse the universe into recognizable bits, properly digestible factoids. That is, if we undo Deleuze's aforementioned valorization of sense which, for his variation of materialism, performed the work of the transcendental, but refuse to reinstate Kant's transcendental disjunction between thing and appearance, then it must be a quality of becoming-as-being itself which can account for the discernible nature of things by sense. In an interview with Peter Gratton, Jane Bennett formulates the problem thusly: What is this strange systematicity proper to a world of Becoming? What, for example, initiates this congealing that will undo itself? Is it possible to identify phases within this formativity, plateaus of differentiation? If so, do the phases/plateaus follow a temporal sequence? Or, does the process of formation inside Becoming require us to theorize a non-chronological kind of time? I think that your student’s question: “How can we account for something like iterable structures in an assemblage theory?” is exactly the right question. Philosophy has erred too far on the side of the subject in the subject-object relation and has furthermore, lost the very weirdness of the non-human. Beyond this, the madness of thought need not override. /4/ - Ventriloquial Idealism or the Externality of Thought My aim is the opposite of Lovecraft's. He had an appreciation for natural scenery on earth and wanted to reach beyond the visible in the universe. I have no appreciation for natural scenery and want the objective universe to be a reflection of a character. Thomas Ligotti. “Devotees of Decay and Desolation.” Unless life is a dream, nothing makes sense. For as a reality, it is a rank failure [….] Horror is more real than we are. Thomas Ligotti. “Professor Nobody's Little Lectures on Supernatural Horror”. Thomas Ligotti's tales are rife with mannequins, puppets, and other brainless entities which of replace the valorized subject of philosophy – that of the free thinking human being. His tales such as “The Dream of the Manikin” aim to destroy the rootedness of consciousness. James Trafford has connected the anti-egoism of Ligotti to Thomas Metzinger – where the self is at best an illusion and we plead desperately for someone else to acknowledge that we are real. Trafford has stated it thus, “Life is played out as an inescapable puppet show, an endless dream in which the puppets are generally unaware that they are trapped within a mesmeric dance of whose mechanisms they know nothing and over which they have no control”. An absolute materialism, for Ligotti, implies an alienation of the idea which leads to a ventriloquil idealism. As Ligotti notes in an interview, “the fiasco and nightmare of existence, the particular fiasco and nightmare of human existence, the sense that people are puppets of powers they cannot comprehend, etc.” And then further elaborates that,“[a]ssuming that anything has to exist, my perfect world would be one in which everyone has experienced the annulment of his or her ego. That is, our consciousness of ourselves as unique individuals would entirely disappear”. The externality of the idea leads to the unfortunate consequence of consciousness eating at itself through horror which, for Ligotti, is more real than reality and goes beyond horror-as-affect. Beyond this, taking together with the unreality of life and the ventriloquizing of subjectivity, Ligotti's thought becomes an idealism in which thought itself is alien and ultimately horrifying. The role of human thought and the relation of non-relation of horror to thought is not completely clear in Ligotti's The Conspiracy Against the Human Race. Ligotti argues in his The Conspiracy Against the Human Race,that the advent of thought is a mistake of nature and that horror is being in the sense that horror results from knowing too much. Yet, at the same time, Ligotti seems to suggest that thought separates us from nature whereas, for Lovecraft, thought is far less privileged – mind is just another manifestation of the vital principal, it is just another materialization of energy. In his brilliant “Prospects for Post-Copernican Dogmatism” Iain Grant rallies against the negative definition of dogmatism and the transcendental, and suggests that negatively defining both over-focuses on conditions of access and subjectivism at the expense of the real or nature. With Schelling, who is Grant's champion against the subjectivist bastions of both Fichte and Kant, Ligotti's idealism could be taken as a transcendental realism following from an ontological realism. Yet the transcendental status of Ligotti's thought move towards a treatment of the transcendental which may threaten to leave beyond its realist ground. Ligotti states: Belief in the supernatural is only superstition. That said, a sense of the supernatural, as Conrad evidenced in Heart of Darkness, must be admitted if one's inclination is to go to the limits of horror. It is the sense of what should not be- the sense of being ravaged by the impossible. Phenomenally speaking, the super-natural may be regarded as the metaphysical counterpart of insanity, a transcendental correlative of a mind that has been driven mad. Again, Ligotti equates madness with thought, qualifying both as supernatural while remaining less emphatic about the metaphysical dimensions of horror. The question becomes one of how exactly the hallucinatory realm of the ideal relates to the black churning matter of Lovecraft's chaos of elementary particles. In his tale “I Have a Special Plan for This World” Ligotti formulates thus: A: There is no grand scheme of things. B: If there were a grand scheme of things, the fact – the fact – that we are not equipped to perceive it, either by natural or supernatural means, is a nightmarish obscenity. C: The very notion of a grand scheme of things is a nightmarish obscenity. Here Ligotti is not discounting metaphysics but implying that if it does exist the fact that we are phenomenologically ill-equipped to perceive that it is nightmarish. For Ligotti, nightmare and horror occur within the circuit of consciousness whereas for Lovecraft the relation between reality and mind is less productive on the side of mind. It is easier to ascertain how the Kantian philosophy is a defense against the diseases of the head as Kant armors his critical enterprise from too much of the world and too much of the mind. The weird fiction of both Lovecraft and Ligotti demonstrates that there is too much of both feeding into one another in a way that corrodes the Kantian schema throughly, breaking it down into a dead but still ontologically potentiated nigredo. The haunting, terrifying fact of Ligotti's idealism is that the transcendental motion which brought thought to matter, while throughly material and naturalized, brings with it the horror that thought cannot be undone without ending the material that bears it either locally or completely. Thought comes from an elsewhere and an elsewhen being-in-thought. The unthinkable outside thought is as maddening as the unthought engine of thought itself within thought which doesn't exist except for the mind, the rotting décor of the brain. /5/ - Hyperstitional Transcendental Paranoia or Self -Expelled Thought Weird fiction has been given some direct treatment in philosophy in the mad black Deleuzianism of Nick Land. Nick Land along with others in the 1990s created the Cyber Culture Research Unit as well as the research group Hyperstition. The now defunct hyperstitional website, an outgrowth of the Cyber Culture Research Unit, defined hyperstition in the following fourfold: 1-Element of effective culture that makes itself real. 2-Fictional quantity functional as a time-traveling device. 3-Coincidence intensifier. 4-Call to the Old Ones. The distinctively Lovecraftian character of hyperstition is hard to miss as is its Deleuzo-Guattarian roots. In the opening pages of A Thousand Plateaus Deleuze and Guattari write, “We have been criticized for over-quoting literary authors. But when one writes, the only question is which other machine the literary machine can be plugged into”. The indisinction of literature and philosophy mirrors the mess of being and knowing as post-correlationist philosophy, where philosophy tries to make itself real where literature, especially the weird, aims itself at the brain-circuit of horror. The texts of both Lovecraft and Ligotti work through horror as epistemological plasticity meeting with proximity as well as the deep time of Lovecraft and the glacially slow time of paranoia in Ligotti. Against Deleuze, and following Brassier, we cannot allow the time of consciousness, the Bergsonian time of the duree, to override natural time, but instead acknowledge that it is an unfortunate fact of existence as a thinking being. Horror-time, the time of consciousness, with all its punctuated moments and drawn out terrors, cannot compare to the deep time of non-existence both in the unreachable past and the unknown future. The crystalline cogs of Kant's account of experience as the leading light for the possibility of metaphysics must be throughly obliterated. His gloss of experience in Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics could not be more sterile: Experience consists of intuitions, which belong to the sensibility, and of judgments, which are entirely a work of the understanding. But the judgments which the understanding makes entirely out of sensuous intuitions are far from being judgments of experience. For in the one case the judgment connects only the perceptions as they are given in sensuous intuition [....] Experience consists in the synthetic connection of appearances in consciousness, so far as this connection is necessary. Here it is difficult to dismiss the queasiness that Kant's legalism induces upon sight for both Badiou and David-Menard. Kant's thought becomes, as Foucault says when reflecting on Sade's text in relation to nature, “the savage abolition of itself”. For Badiou, Kant's philosophy simply closes off too much of the outside, freezing the world of thought in an all too limited formalism. Critical philosophy is simply the systematized quarantine on future thinking, on thinking which would threaten the formalism which artificially grants thought its own coherency in the face of madness. Even the becoming-mad of Deleuze, while escaping the rumbling ground, makes grounds for itself, mad grounds but grounds which are thinkable in their affect. The field of effects allows for Deleuze's aesthetic and radical empiricism, in which effects and/or occasions make up the material of the world to be thought as a chaosmosis of simulacra. Given a critique of an empiricism of aesthetics, of the image, it may be difficult to justify an attack on Kantian formalism with the madness of literature, which does not aim to make itself real but which we may attempt to make real. That is, how do Lovecraft's and Ligotti's materials, as materials for philosophy to work on, differ from either the operative formalisms of Kant or the implicitly formalized images of Deleuzian empiricism? It is simply that such texts do not aim to make themselves real, and make claims to the real which are more alien to us than familiar, which is why their horror is immediately more trustworthy. This is the madness which Blanchot discusses in The Infinite Conversation through Cervantes and his knight – the madness of book-life, of the perverse unity of literature and life a discussion which culminates in the discussion of one of the weird's masters, that of Kafka. The text is the knowing of madness, since madness, in its moment of becoming-more-mad, cannot be frozen in place but by the solidifications of externalizing production. This is why Foucault ends his famous study with works of art. Furthermore extilligence, the ability to export the products of our maligned brains, is the companion of the attempts to export, or discover the possibility of intelligences outside of our heads, in order for philosophy to survive the solar catastrophe. To borrow again from Deleuze, writing is inseparable from becoming. The mistake is to believe that madness is reabsorbed by extilligence, by great works, or that it could be exorcised by the expelling of thought into the inorganic or differently organic. Going out of our heads does not guarantee we will no longer mean we cannot still go out of our minds. This is simply because of the outside, of matter, or force, or energy, or thing-in-itself, or Schopenhauerian Will. In Lovecraft’s “The Music of Erich Zahn” an “impoverished student of metaphysics” becomes intrigued by strange viol music coming from above his room. After meeting the musician the student discovers that each night he plays frantic music at a window in order to keep some horridness at bay, some “impenetrable darkness with chaos and pandemonium”. The aesthetic defenses provided by the well trained brain can bear the hex of matter for so long, the specter of unalterability within it which too many minds obliterate, collapsing everything before the thought of thought as thinkable or at least noetically mutable on our own terms. Transcendental paranoia is the concurrent nightmare and promise of Paul Humphrey's work, of being literally out of our minds. It is the gothic counterpart of thinking non-conceptually but also of thinking never belonging to any instance of purportedly solid being. As Bataille stated, “At the boundary of that which escapes cohesion, he who reflects within cohesion realizes there is no longer any room for him” Thought is immaterial only to the degree that it is inhuman, it is a power that tries, always with failure, to ascertain its own genesis. Philosophy, if it can truly return to the great outdoors, if it can leave behind the dead loop of the human skull, must recognize not only the non-priority of human thought, but that thought never belongs to the brain that thinks it, thought comes from somewhere else. To return to the train image from the beginning “a locomotive rolling on the surface of the earth is the image of continuous metamorphosis” this is the problem of thought, and of thinking thought, of being no longer able to isolate thought, with only a thought-formed structure. [1] One of the central tenets of Francois Laruelle's non-philosophy is that philosophy has traditionally operated on material already presupposed as thinkable instead of trying to think the real in itself. Philosophy, according to Laruelle, remains fixated on transcendental synthesis which shatters immanence into an empirical datum and an a prori factum which are then fused by a third thing such as the ego. For a critical account of Laruelle's non-philosophy see Ray Brassier's Nihil Unbound. (shrink)

Edited proceedings of an interdisciplinary symposium on consciousness held at the University of Cambridge in January 1978. Includes a foreword by Freeman Dyson. Chapter authors: G. Vesey, R.L. Gregory, H.C. Longuet-Higgins, N.K. Humphrey, H.B. Barlow, D.M. MacKay, B.D. Josephson, M. Roth, V.S. Ramachandran, S. Padfield, and (editorial summary only) E. Noakes. A scanned pdf is available from this web site (philpapers.org), while alternative versions more suitable for copying text are available from https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/245189. -/- Page numbering convention for the pdf (...) version viewed in a pdf viewer is as follows: 'go to page n' accesses the pair of scanned pages 2n and 2n+1. Applicable licence: CC Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0. (shrink)

The essays in this volume explore those aspects of Kant’s writings which concern issues in the philosophy of mind. These issues are central to any understanding of Kant’s critical philosophy and they bear upon contemporary discussions in the philosophy of mind. Fourteen specially written essays address such questions as: What role does mental processing play in Kant’s account of intuition? What kinds of empirical models can be given of these operations? In what sense, and in what ways, are intuitions object-dependent? (...) How should we understand the nature of the imagination? What is inner sense, and what does it mean to say that time is the form of inner sense? Can we cognize ourselves through inner sense? How do we self-ascribe our beliefs and what role does self-consciousness play in our judgments? Is the will involved in judging? What kind of knowledge can we have of the self ? And what kind of knowledge of the self does Kant proscribe? These essays showcase the depth of Kant’s writings in the philosophy of mind, and the centrality of those writings to his wider philosophical project. Moreover, they show the continued relevance of Kant’s writings to contemporary debates about the nature of mind and self. Contents: 0. Introduction Anil Gomes and Andrew Stephenson 1. Kant, The Philosophy Of Mind, And Twentieth Century Analytic Philosophy Anil Gomes 2. Synthesis And Binding Lucy Allais 3. Understanding Non-Conceptual Representation Of Objects: Empirical Models Of Sensibility’s Operation Katherine Dunlop 4. Are Kantian Intuitions Object-Dependent? Stefanie Grüne 5. Intuition And Presence Colin McLear 6. Imagination And Inner Intuition Andrew Stephenson 7. Inner Sense And Time Ralf M. Bader 8. Can’t Kant Cognize Himself? Or, A Problem For (Almost) Every Interpretation Of The Refutation Of Idealism Andrew Chignell 9. A Kantian Critique Of Transparency Patricia Kitcher 10. Judging For Reasons: On Kant And The Modalities Of Judgment Jessica Leech 11. Kant On Judging And The Will Jill Vance Buroker 12. Self and Selves Ralph C. S. Walker 13. Subjects Of Kant’s First Paralogism Tobias Rosefeldt 14. The Lessons Of Kant’s Paralogisms Paul Snowdon. (shrink)

According to actualism about possible worlds everything that exists is actual. Possible worlds and individuals are actually existing abstract parts of the actual world. Aristotelian actualism is a view that there are only actual individuals but no possible ones, nor their individual abstract representatives. Because of that, our actualist account of modality should differ depending on whether it concerns actual individuals or possible ones. The main goal of the dissertation is to develop a metaphysical framework for Aristotelian actualism. Chapter 1 (...) explains basic issues associated with the possible world approach to modality. I overview modal realist and actualist views on possible worlds and explain why I support the actualist approach. Subsequently, I introduce a distinction between Platonic and Aristotelian actualism, and discuss some semantic issues associated with actualism as such. In Chapter 2 I argue that Aristotelian actualism, modeled on linguistic ersatzism, is preferable over its Platonic counterpart. Subsequently, I propose a metaphysical framework for Aristotelian ersatzism which is based on a claim that our modal concepts work differently for actual and possible individuals. In order to explain that claim I introduce three specific differences concerning modal features of actual and possible individuals: (a) Representational Difference, according to which actual and possible individuals are represented differently by possible worlds; (b) Metaphysical Difference, according to which actual and possible individuals are represented by possible worlds as having different metaphysical nature; (c) Modal Difference, which says while there are singular and contingent possibilities involving actual individuals, all possibilities about possible individuals are general and necessary. I propose to interpret those differences in terms of the doctrines of haecceitism, antihaecceitism and existentialism. There is however no consensus on how those views should be characterized. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 focus on providing a precise characterization of those doctrines. Chapter 3 focuses on the doctrines of modal haecceitism and antihaecceitism, which I view as opposite accounts of how possible worlds represent possibilities. According to modal haecceitism what possible worlds say about particular individuals does not supervene on what they say qualitatively. Modal antihaecceitism is a denial of such a claim. Chapter 4 concerns metaphysical haecceitism and antihaecceitism, which I take to be alternative accounts of the fundamental structure of reality. For the metaphysical haecceitist reality contains irreducible singular facts, while for the metaphysical antihaecceitist reality is purely qualitative and general. Chapter 5 focuses on an argument between existentialists and antiexistentialists. Existentialists claim that there are contingent singular propositions, while antiexistentialists deny that. I defend existentialism against antiexistentialist counterarguments, as well as criticize some of the antiexistentialist accounts of singular propositions modeled on the notion of individual essence. In Chapter 6, by appealing to the results of investigations conducted in Chapters 3, 4 and 5, I reconsider Representational, Metaphysical and Modal Differences. According to a view that I propose: (a) Representational Difference entails (extreme) modal haecceitism for actual individuals but (extreme) modal antihaecceitism for possible individuals; (b) Metaphysical Difference entails metaphysical haecceitism (individualism) for actual individuals, but metaphysical antihaecceitism (generalism) for possible individuals; finally (c) Modal Difference entails existentialism: while there are singular and contingent possibilities involving actual individuals, all possibilities about possible individuals are general and necessary. In Chapter 6, I also explain the implications of those views for the various issues, including transworld identity, essentialism, or the modal status of modal space. Lastly, Chapter 7 overviews some semantic and metaphysical applications of Aristotelian ersatzism. I explain how it manages to accommodate Kripkean semantics and how it is able to account for the possibilities of indiscernibles, alien individuals and iterated modalities. I also address some possible objections to my proposal, including an issue of implicit representation and the Humphrey objection. (shrink)

Learner autonomy has gained particular attention in Vietnamese higher education since a major education reform launched in 2005. Although a number of studies have been conducted to investigate the concept in the Vietnamese higher education context, most of them have focused on exploring teachers’ and students’ perceptions and beliefs around the concept of autonomy (T. V. Nguyen, 2011; Dang, 2012; Humphreys & Wyatt, 2013; T. N. Nguyen, 2014), and on the possibility of promoting it in Vietnamese universities (Trinh, 2005; L. (...) T. C. Nguyen, 2009; Q. X. Le, 2013; Phan, 2015). There appear to be no studies on the demonstration of learner autonomy and the potential factors, including factors relating to assessment practice, that support or inhibit its demonstration in the Vietnamese higher education context. Building on a social constructivist paradigm and sociocultural theories of learning, this qualitative case study aims to investigate the demonstration of learner autonomy in the context of assessment in English as a foreign language (EFL) classes in a university in Vietnam, and the (potential) factors in assessment that facilitate or constrain the demonstration of learner autonomy in that context. The data were collected through participant observation of teachers’ and students’ practices in three EFL classes at the university during a complete semester, one-on-one semi-structured interviews with three teachers and sixteen students, and post-observation interviews with the three teachers and their students. Additional data which characterised the context of the study were gathered and included documents at the researched university relating to higher education policies, assessment policies, English teaching and learning policies, EFL curriculum and syllabus, test samples, and English teaching textbooks. The study found that students generally demonstrated a low level of autonomy in the classroom despite their positive attitude towards the concept and their awareness of its role in English learning. Primary contributing factors included negative washback of current assessment systems on teaching and learning practices, prescribed assessment practices in the class, teachers’ and learners’ limited and divergent understanding about the concept of learner autonomy, and their limited understanding about the role of assessment in learning in general and in learner autonomy promotion and development in particular. The study also found that students who stated that English was relevant to their personal needs were generally more autonomous outside of the classroom than inside it. Findings from this study support the view that learner autonomy reflects the relationship between learners and the learning environment, and is an emergent product of the interaction between learners and contextual factors including their teacher, their peers, the learning task, class rules and values, and university values and regulations. The study’s findings are significant, as they highlight the social dimension of learner autonomy and the importance of facilitating favourable conditions for teachers to provide learner autonomy and for learners to manifest it. The study also highlights the need to reconsider assessment practices to promote learner autonomy. (shrink)

HORMÔNIOS E SISTEMA ENDÓCRINO NA REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL -/- OBJETIVO -/- As glândulas secretoras do corpo são estudadas pelo ramo da endocrinologia. O estudante de Veterinária e/ou Zootecnia que se preze, deverá entender os processos fisio-lógicos que interagem entre si para a estimulação das glândulas para a secreção de vários hormônios. -/- Os hormônios, dentro do animal, possuem inúmeras funções; sejam exercendo o papel sobre a nutrição, sobre a produção de leite e sobre a reprodução, os hormônios desempenham um primordial papel (...) quanto ao funcionamento do animal. -/- Nesse capítulo, o estudante identificará os hormônios relevantes para o controle reprodutivo, suas características e o uso clínico dos mesmos. -/- -/- INTRODUÇÃO -/- A endocrinologia é a ciência que se encarrega do estudo do sistema endócrino: um sistema de comunicação entre as células de um organismo; esse trabalho de comunicação é compartilhado com o sistema nervoso já que ambos sistemas possuem características distintas que lhes permite complementar-se para alcançar uma adequada coordenação das funções. Em algumas ocasiões o sistema nervoso e o sistema endócrino interagem direta-mente na transmissão de uma mensagem, pelo qual se conhece como sistema neuroendó-crino. -/- -/- OS HORMÔNIOS -/- A endocrinologia é a ciência que se encarrega do estudo dos hormônios e seus e-feitos. De maneira tradicional os hormônios são considerados como “substâncias secreta-das em direção a circulação pelas glândulas especializadas, e que exercem uma função sobre um órgão branco”. Essa definição, no entanto, é limitada e imprecisa. É necessário ser mais pontual, já que os hormônios não são produzidos em qualquer célula da glândula, senão nas células específicas. Por exemplo, o hormônio luteinizante (LH) é produzido pelos gonadotropos da adenohipófise e não por qualquer outro tipo de célula hipofisária. Da mesma maneira, falar de um “órgão branco” não é exato, já que os hormônios atuam somente nas células que tenham receptores específicos para esse hormônio, e não outras células do mesmo órgão; logo, falar de uma “célula branca” é mais apropriado que falar de um “órgão branco”. As células brancas do LH no testículo são as células de Leydig e as células brancas do hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH) no mesmo órgão são as células de Sertoli. -/- Mediante o supracitado, uma definição mais apropriada de hormônio é a seguinte: “Os hormônios são reguladores biológicos, produzidos e secretados em quantidades pe-quenas pelas células vivas, que depois de viajar pelo meio extracelular atuam sobre as cé-lulas brancas, onde exercem uma ação específica”. -/- É importante levar em conta que os hormônios somente regulam (estimulam ou inibem) funções que já existem na célula branca. Ademais, os hormônios são extraordina-riamente potentes, pelo qual se requerem quantidades muito pequenas para induzir uma resposta na célula. As concentrações circulantes da maioria dos hormônios estão na ordem de nanogramas (10-9 g) ou pictogramas (10-12 g) por mililitro. -/- Etimologicamente o termo “endócrino” significa “secretar em direção adentro”, já que os hormônios são secretados em direção ao interior do organismo (o sangue ou o espaço intracelular), em diferença das secreções exócrinas (em direção ao exterior), que são secretadas em direção a luz de um órgão, como o intestino no caso das enzimas pan-creáticas. -/- Algumas substâncias, sem deixar de ser hormônios, recebem uma classificação adicional em relação ao seu local de ação, ao tipo de células que lhes produzem, ou a al-guma outra característica. Agora, serão descritas algumas dessas características (figura 1). -/- -/- Parahormônio ou hormônio local -/- A maioria dos hormônios são transportados pela circulação desde seu local de se-creção até a célula branca. No entanto, alguns hormônios exercem seu efeito em células adjacentes aquelas que foram produzidos, ao qual não é necessário seu transporte através da circulação geral. Esse tipo de substâncias são chamadas de parahormônios ou hormô-nios locais, e sua liberação é denominada como secreção parácrina. Um exemplo é a pros-taglandina F2 alfa (PGF₂α), que é produzida no epitélio uterino (endométrio) e provoca as contrações nas células musculares do mesmo órgão (miométrio). Deve-se tomar em conta que a mesma substância poderia se comportar em outros casos como um hormônio clássico, atuando em um órgão distinto ao local de sua produção; é o caso da mesma PGF₂α de origem endometrial quando atua sobre as células do corpo lúteo do ovário, pro-vocando sua regressão. A classificação de uma substância como hormônio ou parahormô-nio não depende de sua estrutura química, senão da relação espacial existente entre a célu-la que o produz e a célula branca. -/- -/- Neurohormônio -/- A maioria dos hormônios são produzidos pelas células de origem epitelial, porém, muitos deles são produtos pelos neurônios, logo denominados como neurohormônios. To-dos os neurônios segregam alguma substância, porém tratam-se dos neurohormônios quando o neurônio que os produz despeja-os diretamente em direção a circulação geral, através da qual chegam aos órgãos para exercer seu efeito, sejam na indução, inibição ou estimulação do mesmo. -/- Esse processo é diferente dos neurotransmissores, os quais também são secretados por um neurônio, mas exercem seu efeito em uma célula adjacente com o qual o neurônio estabelece uma sinapse (neuroma com neurônio, neurônio com célula muscular, neurônio com célula glandular). A classificação de uma substância como hormônio ou como neuro-hormônio não depende de sua estrutura química, senão do tipo de célula que o produz. Uma mesma substância é um hormônio quando ele é produzido por uma célula epitelial e um neurohormônio se é produzido por um neurônio. A ocitocina, por exemplo, é secre-tada na neurohipófise por neurônios hipotalâmicos, nesse caso se trata de um neurohor-mônio, mas também é secretada por células do corpo lúteo dos ruminantes, e se trata nesse caso, de um hormônio. A distinção entre um neurohormônio e um hormônio é um neuro-transmissor, da mesma forma, não depende de sua estrutura química, e sim do local onde é secretado. Por exemplo, a dopamina atua como neurotransmissor quando se libera em sinapse da substância negra do mesencéfalo z mas atua como neurohormônio quando é liberada por neurônios hipotalâmicos em direção a circulação do eixo hipotálamo-hipofisário. -/- -/- Pré-hormônio -/- Em alguns casos, os hormônios são secretados em forma inativa (pré-hormônio), que requer uma transformação posterior para converter-se na forma ativa de hormônio. O angiotensinógeno circulante somente cobrará atividade biológica ao se transformar em angiotensina por ação da enzima renina. Algumas substâncias podem atuar como hormô-nios m alguns casos e como pré-hormônios em outros. A testosterona, por exemplo, atua como hormônio nas células musculares, aos quais possui um efeito anabólico direto. O certo é que para a testosterona induzir a masculinização dos órgãos genitais externos em um efeito macho é necessário que seja transformada previamente em 5α-di-hidrotes-tosterona pela enzima 5α-redutase presente nas células de tecido branco, por onde, nesse caso a testosterona é um pré-hormônio de di-hidrotestosterona. -/- -/- Feromônio -/- Os hormônios são mensagens químicas que comunicam a células distintas dentro do mesmo organismo, embora existam casos aos que requerem uma comunicação quími-ca entre organismos diferentes, em geral da mesma espécie. As substâncias empregadas para esse fim denominam-se feromônios. Essas substâncias devem possuir a capacidade de dispersão sobre o ambiente, pelo que nos organismos terrestres geralmente trata-se de substâncias voláteis, enquanto que os feromônios de organismos aquáticos geralmente são substâncias hidrossolúveis. Embora muitos feromônios possuam uma função sexual ou reprodutiva como é o caso de muitas espécies como a canina em que a fêmea em cio dispersa grandes quantidades de feromônios que são captados de longe pelos machos, todavia esse não é sempre o caso, e eles podem ser utilizados para outros tipos de comunicação, como é o caso dos feromônios utilizados pelas formigas para sinalização da rota em direção a fonte de alimentação. E como as abelhas no sentido de orientação da fonte de pólen até a colmeia. Muitos desses feromônios podem ser artificializados, isto é, elaborados pelo homem em laboratório para o estudo ou manipulação de algum animal. -/- -/- O SISTEMA ENDÓCRINO COMO UM SISTEMA DE COMUNICAÇÃO -/- O sistema endócrino é um sistema de comunicação que tem como objetivo coor-denar as funções das células de diferentes órgãos para mantença da homeostase do orga-nismo e promover seu desenvolvimento, crescimento e reprodução. Também ajuda os or-ganismos a adaptarem-se as mudanças de ambiente e ao habitat. O sistema endócrino representa um sistema de comunicação do tipo sem fio, diferentemente do sistema nervo-so que é um sistema de comunicação com fio. -/- Em todo o sistema de comunicação existe uma série de elementos que são necessá-rios para a realização da comunicação de forma efetiva. Esses elementos incluem o emis-sor, a mensagem, o sinal, o meio de transporte do sinal, o receptor, o efetor, a resposta e o feedback ou retroalimentação (figura 1). Todos os elementos são igualmente importan-tes e uma deficiência em qualquer deles pode interromper ou alterar a comunicação. -/- -/- Figura 1: componentes do sistema endócrino de comunicação. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Emissor ou transmissor -/- É o elemento responsável pela transmissão de uma mensagem; poderíamos com-pará-lo com a redação de notícias de um canal de televisão. Antes de decidir quais serão as notícias que serão transmitidas esse dia, em que ordem se apresentarão e que ênfase lhes darão, as pessoas da redação analisa rodas as informações disponíveis: provenientes de seus repórteres, de agências de notícias internacionais, publicada em jornais do dia, a existente na internet ou disponíveis através de redes sociais; isso significa que as mensa-gens transmitidas pelo emissor não são aleatórias, e sim respondem a uma análise respon-sável das necessidades de informação. -/- No sistema endócrino o emissor é a célula que produz e secreta um hormônio. Co-mo todo emissor responsável, a mesma célula analisa toda a informação relevante dispo-nível, tal como a concentração de diversos metabólitos no sangue, a concentração de ou-tros hormônios, e as mensagens que recebem por via nervosa, antes de decidir se secretará seu hormônio, em que quantidade o fará e com que frequência. Por essa razão, ao estudar o sistema endócrino não somente devemos conhecer a célula transmissora, e sim qual é a informação que a célula pode receber, e como a analisa e a prioriza para construir sua mensagem. -/- -/- Mensagem -/- É a informação transmitida pelo emissor. No caso de um sistema de notícias tele-visivas a mensagem é a notícia, por exemplo “Vaca dá a luz trigêmeos, um caso raro no Brasil”. No sistema endócrino a mensagem que se transmite é uma instrução para que em outra célula se realize determinadas ações. Por exemplo, os neurônios produtores de GnRH no hipotálamo de uma coelha, ao analisar as concentrações de estradiol circulantes e a informação nervosa procedente de neurônios sensoriais nós órgãos genitais da fêmea, podem “saber” que nos ovários existam folículos lisos para ovularem e que a coelha está copulando, pelo qual decidem transmitir a mensagem “Solicita-se os gonadotropos da adenohipófise a liberação de LH em quantidade suficiente para provocar a ovulação”. -/- -/- Sinal -/- É a forma a qual se codifica a mensagem para permitir sua difusão. No caso de um jornal, a mensagem (por exemplo a notícia da vaca que deu a luz trigêmeos) se codifi-ca em forma de ondas de rádio de uma determinada frequência, amplitude e intensidade; no caso do sistema endócrino a mensagem (a necessidade de realizar uma função celular) é codificada em forma de hormônio secretado em determinada quantidade, frequência e amplitude. Para o exemplo descrito supra, a mensagem se codifica na forma de uma grande elevação nas concentrações de GnRH no sangue do sistema porta hipotálamo-hipofisário. -/- É necessário tomar em conta que o emissor codifica a mensagem de forma tal que quando o receptor decifre o sinal obtenha a informação originalmente contida na mensa-gem. No entanto, o sinal pode ser interpretado de diferentes formas por receptores distintos, o que pode provocar respostas contrárias as esperadas. A notícia transmitida por um jornal de rádio, por exemplo, poderia estar codificada em forma de ondas de rádio que, casualmente, para o sistema eletrônico de um avião signifiquem “baixe a altitude e acelere”, razão pela qual é proibido utilizar aparelhos eletrônicos durante a decolagem e aterrissagem desses aparelhos. -/- Do mesmo modo, a mensagem codificada na forma de secreção de estradiol por parte dos ovários pode ser interpretado pelo sistema nervoso de uma ovelha como uma ordem para apresentar conduta de estro, pelas células do folículo ovariano como uma instrução para sofrer mitose e secretar o líquido folicular, pelos gonadotropos como uma ordem para a secreção de um pico pré-ovulatório de LH, e pelas células do endométrio como uma instrução para sintetizar receptores para a ocitocina. Dessa forma, o mesmo sinal (secreção de estradiol) pode conter diferentes mensagens para diferentes células do organismo. -/- Em alguns casos, pode-se apresentar uma resposta patológica devido as diversas formas de interpretação de uma mensagem, por exemplo, a repetição da secreção de adrenalina em um indivíduo estressado pode resultar no desenvolvimento de um proble-ma de hipertensão arterial. Por isso é necessário conhecer a maneira em que cada célula endócrina codifica suas mensagens, assim como a forma em que esses sinais podem ser interpretados em diferentes órgãos e tecidos, em diferentes momentos da vida do animal, em animais com diferentes antecedentes de espécies diferentes. -/- -/- Meio de transporte do sinal -/- O sinal tem que viajar ou difundir-se desde o emissor até o receptor, e em seu ca-minho pode ser modificado de diversas formas. Os sinais de rádio, por exemplo, viajam através da atmosfera e durante esse trajeto podem ser bloqueados por uma barreira física (como ocorre com as ondas de rádio AM em um túnel), ampliadas por uma estação repeti-dora, alteradas por um campo eletromagnético (uma aspiradora funcionando ao lado da sala de transmissão), entre outros. Da mesma forma, os sinais endócrinos que geralmente viajam no sangue, podem ser modificados ao longo do seu caminho. -/- A PGF₂α é inativada ao passar pelo pulmão, o angiotensinógeno é ativado pela re-nina na circulação, e a testosterona pode ser transformada em di-hidrotestosterona nas células da pele e na próstata, ou em estrógenos nos adipócitos e nos neurônios. Por tudo isso, o sinal que finalmente chega ao receptor pode ser diferente do transmitido pelo emissor. -/- Portanto, ao estudar qualquer sistema hormonal devemos conhecer as possíveis modificações que o hormônio pode sofrer desde o momento em que é secretado até que se uma ao seu receptor na célula branca. -/- -/- Receptor -/- É o elemento que recebe o sinal e interpreta a mensagem contida nele. No caso de um jornal de TV, o receptor é o canal correspondente (por exemplo o canal 2) em um aparelho de televisão. É importante ressaltar que um aparelho de TV possui muitos canais distintos, mas somente receberá mensagens se estiver ligado e sintonizado no canal que está transmitindo a mensagem de interesse. Ou seja, o receptor tem que estar ativo. -/- No caso das mensagens endócrinas os receptores são moléculas específicas nas células brancas. Essas moléculas são proteínas membranais ou citoplasmáticas (segundo o tipo de hormônio), que possui uma alta afinidade por seu hormônio, o que lhes permite registrar a mensagem apenas das baixíssimas concentrações em que os hormônios circu-lam. Os receptores possuem uma alta especificidade, o que significa que somente se unem a seu próprio hormônio, e não a outras substâncias. Em algumas ocasiões um receptor pode receber diversos hormônios do mesmo tipo; por exemplo o receptor de andrógenos pode unir testosterona, androstenediona, di-hidrotestosterona e diversos andrógenos sin-téticos. Apesar disso, cada um desses hormônios pode possuir uma afinidade diferente pelo receptor, pelo qual alguns serão mais potentes que outros para estimulação. -/- Em geral existe um número limitado de moléculas receptoras em cada célula, logo diz-se que os receptores são “saturáveis”, o qual significa que uma vez que todos sejam ocupados a célula não pode receber mais moléculas desse hormônio. Por essa razão a magnitude da resposta de um determinado hormônio vai aumentando conforme se aumen-tam suas concentrações, porém ao saturar-se os receptores alcançam um ponto em que a resposta já não aumenta embora sigam incrementando as concentrações hormonais já que os receptores não permanecem livres para unirem-se ao excesso de moléculas do hormô-nio. -/- As células, em contrapartida, podem regular tanto o número de receptores presen-tes como a afinidade destes por seu hormônio; isso significa que a magnitude da resposta antes um determinado sinal endócrino pode ser distinta em diferentes momentos da vida de um animal; depende do estado dos receptores presentes nos tecidos, pelo qual é impor-tante conhecer quais são os fatores que podem aumentar ou reduzir o número de recepto-res em uma célula, assim como aqueles que podem aumentar ou diminuir a afinidade des-ses receptores por seus hormônios. -/- -/- Efetor -/- É o elemento encarregado de responder a uma mensagem realizando uma ação, e é um elemento diferente do receptor. Vale ressaltar que no caso de uma transmissão de televisão o receptor é o aparelho sintonizado no canal de interesse, porém o efetor é o te-lespectador que está exposto as notícias. Esse telespectador sofrerá mudanças que podem resultar em uma ação. A mudança pode ser evidente (e auxiliar as vítimas de um desastre), ou simplesmente uma mudança potencial (ao se inteirar de uma notícia não se pode produ-zir nenhuma mudança aparente até que alguém lhe pergunte: já se interessou?, E nesse caso a resposta será: “sim” em lugar do “não”). Deve-se tomar em conta que o efetor pode estar ausente embora o receptor esteja presente (um televisor ligado em uma sala vazia). O efetor também pode estar inativado (o telespectador encontra-se dormindo); quando assim ocorre não irá produzir uma resposta embora o receptor esteja presente. -/- No sistema endócrino o efetor é, em geral, um sistema celular encarregado de rea-lizar uma determinada função. Na maioria dos casos trata-se de sistemas enzimáticos cuja função é estimulada pela união do hormônio ao seu receptor. Alguns hormônios, por exemplo, atuam através do sistema AMP cíclico (AMPc) logo, a união do hormônio ao seu receptor resulta na ativação de uma proteína chamada Proteína Gs, que ativa a enzima Adenil-ciclase (ou adenilato ciclase), a qual transforma ATP em AMPc. A presença de AMPc resulta na ativação de uma enzima cinese de proteínas que fosforiza outras enzi-mas, o que pode ativá-las ou inativá-las; nesses casos, é gerada uma cascata de eventos que resulta em uma mudança na atividade celular; por exemplo, a cadeia de eventos que produz-se em resposta ao AMPc quando a célula de Leydig do testículo é estimulada pela união do LH a seu receptor resulta na produção de testosterona, enquanto que a estimula-ção de um adipócito provocada pela união da adrenalina a seu receptor, que também atua através do sistema AMPc, resulta em uma série de eventos que provocam, finalmente, a liberação de ácidos graxos livres em direção a circulação. -/- Nos exemplos supra, o AMPc é considerado um mensageiro intracelular, já que o receptor capta o sinal (hormônio) no exterior da célula, o que resulta na produção de um novo sinal (mudança nas concentrações de AMPc) no interior da célula. Embora o sistema AMPc seja utilizado por muitos hormônios, não é um sistema universal; existem outros sistemas mensageiros intracelulares que também são utilizados para responder os hormô-nios que não entram nas células, por exemplo o sistema cálcio-calmodulina, ou os siste-mas baseados em receptores com atividade de cineses de tirosina. Nos casos que os hor-mônios possa atravessar livremente a membrana celular, como acontece com os hormôni-os esteroides, o hormônio se une a receptores presentes no citoplasma, que depois ingres-sam ao núcleo celular para intervir na regulação da transcrição do genoma. -/- De maneira independente ao mecanismo de ação de um determinado hormônio, sua presença finalmente desencadeará mudanças em um ou mais sistemas efetores da célula, o que permitirá que a mesma responda a mensagem que o emissor transmitiu originalmente. É evidente que para compreender a ação de qualquer hormônio é indispensável conhecer seu mecanismo de ação, o papel dos mensageiros intracelulares e as característi-cas dos sistemas efetores. Deve-se conhecer também quais são os fatores que afetam a transdução da mensagem já que uma célula pode regular seus sistemas efetores e dessa forma ter uma resposta maior, menor ou alterada ante a mesma mensagem. -/- -/- Resposta -/- Como mencionado, qualquer mensagem provoca uma resposta (embora somente seja potencial) sobre o efetor que a recebe. No sistema endócrino, as mensagens hormonais viajam constantemente pelo organismo e são captadas por todas as células que possuem receptores ativos para um determinado hormônio. Uma única célula pode ter receptores para diferentes hormônios, pelo qual pode estar recebendo diversas mensagens simultaneamente, e cada uma dessas mensagens pode afetar a resposta de outras mensagens. Por exemplo, a presença de progesterona pode alterar a resposta das células endometriais ao estradiol. Ademais, as células podem estar recebendo ao mesmo tempo uma informação não hormonal, como as concentrações de diversos metabólitos na circulação, ou a recebida pelo sistema nervoso. A célula analisa toda essa informação e com base nela decide se deve responder a mensagem hormonal que está recebendo como deve responder, com que intensidade e durante quanto tempo. A resposta final pode ser uma resposta física imediata (contração, secreção de um hormônio armazenado previa-mente), uma modificação bioquímica a curto prazo (síntese de um determinado hormônio ou outra substância), ou o início de uma série de mudanças que levam a uma mudança a longo prazo (divisão celular, diferenciação celular, crescimento, morte celular). -/- -/- Feedback ou retroalimentação -/- Quando em um sistema de comunicação se produz uma resposta, em muitos casos essa resposta engloba a geração de informação que vai retornar ao emissor, e que agora constituirá um ou mais dos elementos que o emissor tomará em conta antes de transmitir uma nova mensagem. Assim, se um jornal transmite uma mensagem “menina pobre necessita de doação de roupas”, a resposta de alguns efetores (telespectadores) que virão a doar roupas será conhecida pelo emissor, que assim saberá que já não será mais neces-sário voltar a transmitir a mensagem, o que o fará tomar a decisão de transmitir uma mensagem diferente como “menina pobre já não necessita de roupas, porém requer de ali-mentos para sua família”. Essa modificação da mensagem provocada pela resposta do efetor é conhecida como retroalimentação. -/- De forma análoga, no sistema endócrino a resposta da célula efetora geralmente é reconhecida pelo emissor, que em consequência modifica sua mensagem. Na maioria dos casos se produz uma retroalimentação negativa, que consiste em que a resposta do efetor provoca uma redução na intensidade da mensagem transmitida pelo emissor. Quando os gonadotropos de uma vaca secretam hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH), as células da granulosa de seus folículos ovarianos respondem realizando diversas funções, uma das quais é a secreção de inibina. A elevação nas concentrações circulantes de inibina é capta-da pelos gonadotropos, que logo sabem que o FSH já transmitiu sua mensagem, pelo que reduzem a secreção deste hormônio. A retroalimentação negativa é muito importante em qualquer sistema endócrino já que permite manter as concentrações hormonais dentro de limites aceitáveis. -/- A retroalimentação negativa pode ser de onda ultracurta, curta ou longa. A onda ultracurta é quando o hormônio produzido por uma célula pode inibir sua própria secre-ção. A retroalimentação negativa de onda curta é quando o hormônio produzido por uma célula pode inibir a de um órgão imediatamente superior na hierarquia (por exemplo, quando a progesterona produzida pelo corpo lúteo do ovário inibe a secreção de LH pelos gonadotropos da hipófise). O feedback negativo de onda longa sucede quando o hormônio produzido por uma célula inibe a uma célula de um órgão que está dois ou mais níveis por cima na escala hierárquica, por exemplo, quando a testosterona produzida pelas células de Leydig do testículo inibe diretamente os neurônios produtores de GnRH, saltando as células produtoras de LH e adenohipófise. -/- Existe também a retroalimentação positiva, da qual o primeiro hormônio estimula a secreção de um segundo hormônio, o que por sua vez estimula o primeiro, com o que se estabelece um círculo progressivo de estimulação. Um exemplo de retroalimentação positiva é a que se produz pouco antes da ovulação entre o LH hipofisário e o estradiol de origem folicular. Os dois hormônios se estimulam mutuamente até que alcancem níveis elevados de LH que provoca a ovulação. O círculo de feedback positivo termina quando o pico pré-ovulatório de LH mudanças sobre o folículo que incluem a perda da capacidade de produção de estrógenos. Todo o sistema de retroalimentação positiva deve ter um final abrupto sobre o qual se rompe o ciclo de estimulação mútua, já que não mais deverá ser produzida quantidades elevadas dos hormônios, até que todos os recursos do organismo sejam utilizados para esse fim. -/- -/- CLASSIFICAÇÃO QUÍMICA DOS HORMÔNIOS -/- Do ponto de vista químico e sobre o estudo da Fisiologia da Reprodução Animal, existem quatro grupos principais de hormônios: polipeptídios, esteroides, aminas e prostaglandinas; dentro de cada grupo, por sua vez, existem mais grupos de inúmeros outros hormônios dispostos em subdivisões. -/- -/- Hormônios polipeptídios -/- Os polipeptídios são cadeias de aminoácidos. Quando uma dessas cadeias está constituída por poucos aminoácidos é denominada simplesmente de polipeptídios, mas quando uma cadeia de aminoácidos é longa e adquire uma configuração espacial de três dimensões o polipeptídio é denominado proteína (figura 2). Muitos neurohormônios hipo-talâmicos são polipeptídios, como o liberador de gonadotropinas (GnRH), constituído por 10 aminoácidos, o hormônio liberador de tirotropina (TRH), formado por 3 aminoácidos, o somatostatina, constituído por 14 aminoácidos, a ocitocina que é formada por 8 aminoá-cidos etc. O sistema nervoso central e a hipófise produzem peptídeos opioides. -/- Entre os hormônios polipeptídios que por seu tamanho são considerados proteínas encontramos a prolactina, o hormônio do crescimento, os lactogênios placentários, a relaxina, a insulina e fatores de crescimento parecidos com a insulina (IGFs). Existe outro grupo de hormônios polipeptídios classificados como glicoproteínas. Trata-se de proteí-nas que possuem carboidratos unidos a alguns de seus aminoácidos. -/- -/- Figura 2: classificação dos hormônios polipeptídios. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Há um grupo de hormônios glicoproteicos que constituem uma família de molécu-las similares entre si, dentro das quais estão o hormônio luteinizante (LH), o hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH), o hormônio estimulante da tireoide (TSH), a gonadotropina coriônica humana (hCG) e a gonadotropina coriônica equina (eCG); todos estão formados pela subunidade alfa que é idêntica para os hormônios de uma determinada espécie animal, e por uma subunidade beta específica para cada hormônio. As duas subunidades mantém-se unidas através de ligações dissulfeto. Deve-se mencionar que os carboidratos associados as glicoproteínas podem ser distintos em diferentes idades, épocas do ano ou estados fisiológicos; esse processo é conhecido como microheterogenicidade, e recente-mente têm-se dado grande importância a seu estudo, já que é reconhecido fatores tais como a vida média de um hormônio ou sua atividade biológica podem ser modificados de acordo com o tipo de carboidratos presentes na molécula. -/- Existe outra família de hormônios glicoproteicos, que incluem a inibina A, a B, e a activina A, AB e B. Todos os hormônios polipeptídios possuem algumas características comuns. Em primeiro lugar, trata-se de moléculas hidrossolúveis que não conseguem atravessar as membranas celulares pelo qual se unem a receptores transmembranais que flutuam sobre a parede externa da membrana da célula branca e requerem de um segundo mensageiro intracelular, como o cálcio ou o AMPc, para levar sua mensagem ao interior da célula. -/- Os hormônios desse grupo, não podem ser administrados por via dérmica, oral, retal ou intravaginal, já que não podem atravessar a pela ou as mucosas intestinais, retais ou vaginais. Os polipeptídios são digeridos no estômago, o que também impede sua admi-nistração oral. Outra característica que deve-se tomar em conta é que as proteínas (embora não os polipeptídios pequenos) podem se desnaturalizar por fatores como o calor (são termolábeis), a congelação, ou mudanças de pH m a desnaturalização consiste em uma mudança na forma natural da proteína, o que leva a perda de sua função. Por essa razão, ao trabalhar com hormônios proteicos devem-se tomar cuidados especiais durante seu manejo para evitar a exposição a fatores desnaturalizantes. -/- -/- Hormônios esteroides -/- São moléculas derivadas do colesterol; a célula esteroidogênica pode sintetizar o colesterol, obtê-lo de reservas intracelulares ou da circulação. Na célula esteroidogênica existem diversas enzimas que atuam sequencialmente sobre a molécula de colesterol, provocando mudanças sucessivas até obter o hormônio final que será secretado, ao qual dependerá das enzimas que estão presentes e ativas na célula. -/- Existem cinco grupos principais de hormônios esteroides; os progestágenos, os estrógenos, os glicocorticoides e os mineralocorticoides (figura 3). -/- Os progestágenos são hormônios que favorecem o desenvolvimento da gestação; seus efeitos incluem, entre outros, a estimulação da secreção endometrial de substâncias nutritivas para o embrião, a estimulação do desenvolvimento embrionário e placentário, a inibição das contrações uterinas, bem como fazer com que a cérvix fique fechada. O principal hormônio natural desse grupo é a progesterona, mas existem uma grande quantidade de progestágenos sintéticos utilizados na medicina veterinária, tais como o acetato fluorogestona (FGA), o acetato de melengestrol (MGA), o altrenogest e o norgestomet. -/- Os estrógenos são os hormônios femininos responsáveis, entre outras funções, dos sinais do estro ou receptividade sexual nas fêmeas. A maior parte de seus efeitos estão no alcance da fertilização do ovócito. Os estrógenos, além de estimular a conduta sexual feminina, favorecem, entre outras coisas, a abertura da cérvix para permitir a passagem do espermatozoide, e as contrações uterinas para impulsionar o sêmen em direção aos ovidutos. O principal estrógeno natural é o estradiol 17β, outros membros naturais do grupo são a estrona, a equilina e a equilenina, esses dois últimos presentes exclusivamente em éguas gestantes. Também existem numerosos estrógenos sintéticos, tais como o valerato de estradiol, o benzoato de estradiol e o cipionato de estradiol. -/- Os andrógenos são hormônios masculinos. Possuem uma grande quantidade de efeitos encaminhados a alcançar o êxito reprodutivo do macho, como estimular a conduta sexual, estimular a produção de espermatozoides e estimular as secreções das glândulas sexuais acessórias. O andrógeno principal é a testosterona, outros andrógenos naturais incluem a androstenediona e a di-hidrotestosterona. Existe também inúmeros andrógenos sintéticos. -/- Os glicocorticoides ou corticosteroides possuem funções principalmente metabó-licas e de adaptação ao estresse. O principal corticosteroide na maioria das espécies é o cortisol, enquanto que nos ratos e outros roedores é a corticosterona. Na reprodução, os corticosteroides desempenham um papel relevante, em particular durante o parto e a lac-tação. -/- Os mineralocorticoides, como a aldotestosterona, se encarregam da regulação do balanço de líquidos e eletrólitos no organismo. -/- -/- Figura 3: subgrupos dos hormônios esteroides. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Os hormônios esteroides como grupos são hidrossolúveis, pelo qual podem atra-vessar livremente as membranas celulares, por essa razão utilizam receptores intracelula-res que se encontram no citoplasma da célula branca; também pode-se administrar por via oral, pela pele, e através das mucosas retal ou vaginal. São moléculas termoestáveis e não são digeridas no estômago, embora algumas possas sofrer modificações na pH ácido, alterando sua função. -/- -/- Aminas -/- São moléculas derivadas de um aminoácido que se modifica pela ação de enzimas específicas. Existem dois tipos de hormônios aminas: as catecolaminas e as indolaminas (figura 4). As catecolaminas derivam do aminoácido tirosina, e incluem a dopamina, a a-drenalina e a noradrenalina. As indolaminas derivam-se do triptofano, e incluem a seroto-nina e a melatonina. -/- As aminas são moléculas hidrossolúveis que não podem atravessar as membranas celulares e portanto atuam através de receptores membranais e segundos mensageiros intracelulares. -/- -/- Figura 4: classificação dos hormônios peptídicos. Fonte: ZARCO, 2018. -/- -/- Prostaglandinas -/- São substâncias derivadas do ácido araquidônico. A principal fonte desse ácido graxo são os fosfolipídios da membrana celular, a partir dos quais se podem liberar o ácido araquidônico mediante a ação da enzima fosfolipase A2. O ácido araquidônico se transforma em prostaglandina H mediante a ação da enzima ciclo-oxigenase (ou sintetase de prostaglandinas), que mais adiante se transforma em diferentes prostaglandinas especí-ficas pela ação de diversas enzimas. O tipo de prostaglandina produzido por cada célula dependerá do complemento de enzimas presentes. -/- A prostaglandina mais importante na reprodução é a PGF2α, a qual é responsável pela destruição do corpo lúteo na maioria das espécies; também provoca contrações uteri-nas, pelo qual é importante para o parto, e o transporte dos espermatozoides e a involução uterina depois do parto. Na prática veterinária a PGF2α natural (dinoprosr) ou seus seme-lhantes sintéticos (cloprostenol, luprostiol etc.) são utilizados para a sincronização do ciclo estral, para a indução do parto e para tratar diversas patologias. Outra prostaglandina com algumas ações relacionadas com a reprodução é a prostaglandina E2 (PGE2). -/- As prostaglandinas são substâncias anfipáticas (com propriedades hidrossolúveis e lipossolúveis), pelo qual podem atravessar as membranas celulares. -/- REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- AUSTIN, Colin Russell; SHORT, R. Reproduction in mammals. Cambridge, 1972. -/- BEARDEN, Henry Joe et al. Reproducción animal aplicada. México: Manual Moderno, 1982. -/- BECKER, Jill B. et al. (Ed.). Behavioral endocrinology. Mit Press, 2002. -/- BITTAR, Edward (Ed.). Reproductive endocrinology and biology. Elsevier, 1998. -/- BURNSTEIN, Kerry L. (Ed.). Steroid hormones and cell cycle regulation. Kluwer Academic Pub., 2002. -/- CUNNINGHAM, James. Tratado de fisiologia veterinária. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2011. -/- CUPPS, Perry T. (Ed.). Reproduction in domestic animals. Elsevier, 1991. -/- DUKES, Henry Hugh; SWENSON, Melvin J.; REECE, William O. Dukes fisiologia dos animais domésticos. Editora Guanabara Koogan, 1996. -/- FELDMAN, Edward C. et al. Canine and feline endocrinology-e-book. Elsevier health sciences, 2014. -/- FUSCO, Giuseppe; MINELLI, Alessandro. The Biology of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press, 2019. -/- GILBERT, Scott F. Biologia del desarrollo. Ed. Médica Panamericana, 2005. -/- GORE, Andrea C. GnRH: the master molecule of reproduction. Springer Science & Business Media, 2002. -/- HAFEZ, Elsayed Saad Eldin; HAFEZ, Bahaa. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. -/- HERNÁNDEZ PARDO, Blanca. Endocrinología: Lo esencial de un vistazo. México: Panamericana, 2016. -/- HYTTEL, Poul; SINOWATZ, Fred; VEJLSTED, Morten. Embriologia veterinária. São Paulo: Elsevier Brasil, 2012. -/- ILLERA MARTIN, Mariano. Endocrinología veterinaria y fisiología de la reproducción. Madrid: COLIBAC, 1984. -/- JOHNSON, Martin H. Essential reproduction. Nova Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2018. -/- MANDOKI, Juan José et al. Hormone multifunctionalities: a theory of endocrine signaling, command and control. Progress in biophysics and molecular biology, v. 86, n. 3, p. 353-377, 2004. -/- MANDOKI, Juan José et al. Reflections on the mode of functioning of endocrine systems. Archives of medical research, v. 41, n. 8, p. 653-657, 2010. -/- MCKINNON, Angus O. et al. (Ed.). Equine reproduction. Nova Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. -/- MELMED, Shlomo (Ed.). The pituitary. Londres: Academic press, 2010. -/- NORRIS, David O.; LOPEZ, Kristin H. (Ed.). Hormones and reproduction of vertebrates. Academic Press, 2010. -/- PARHAR, Ishwar S. (Ed.). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: molecules and receptors. Elsevier, 2002. -/- PIMENTEL, C. A. Fisiologia e endocrinologia da reprodução da fêmea bovina. I Simpósio de Reprodução de Bovinos, Porto Alegre, RS, 2002. -/- PINEDA, Mauricio H. et al. McDonald's veterinary endocrinology and reproduction. Iowa state press, 2003. -/- RAMOS DUEÑAS, J. I. Endocrinología de la reproducción animal. 2018. -/- SALISBURY, Glenn Wade et al. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of cattle. WH Freeman and Company., 1978. -/- SANDERS, Stephan. Endocrine and reproductive systems. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2003. -/- SORENSEN, Anton Marinus. Reproducción animal: principios y prácticas. México, 1982. -/- SQUIRES, E. James. Applied animal endocrinology. Cambridge: Cabi, 2010. -/- YEN, Samuel SC; JAFFE, Robert B.; BARBIERI, Robert L. Endocrinología de la Reproducción. Fisiología, fisiopatología y manejo clínico. Madrid: Ed. Médica Panamericana, 2001. -/- ZARCO, L. Endocrinología. In. PORTA, L. R.; MEDRANO, J. H. H. Fisiología reproductiva de los animales domésticos. Cidade do México: FMVZ-UNAM, 2018. (shrink)

In my article "Even if the fetus is not a person, abortion is immoral: The impairment argument" (this journal), I defended what I called “The impairment argument” which purports to show that abortion is immoral. Bruce Blackshaw (2019) has argued that my argument fails on three accounts. In this article, I respond to his criticisms.

The New Evil Demon problem has been hotly debated since the case was introduced in the early 1980’s (e.g. Lehrer and Cohen 1983; Cohen 1984), and there seems to be recent increased interest in the topic. In a forthcoming collection of papers on the New Evil Demon problem (Dutant and Dorsch, forthcoming), at least two of the papers, both by prominent epistemologists, attempt to resist the problem by appealing to the distinction between justification and excuses. My primary aim here is (...) to critically evaluate this new excuse maneuver as a response to the New Evil Demon problem. -/- Their response attempts to give us reason to reject the idea that victims of the New Evil Demon have justification for believing as they do. I shall argue that this approach is ultimately unsuccessful, however much of value can be learned from these attempts. In particular, progress in the debate can be made by following those who advance the excuse maneuver and make explicit the connection between epistemic justification and epistemic norms. By doing so, the questions being debated are clarified, as is the methodology being used to attempt to answer them. (shrink)

“In the beginning there was hunger.” This opening quote from Levinas sets the stage for Pelluchon’s ethico-political project that revamps classical phenomenology’s intentionality of the ego by focusing on the sensing and enjoyment of the “gourmet cogito” who “lives from” and finds nourishment in a world that cannot be reduced to a noeme. She critiques Heidegger’s existential analytic and focuses on an ontology where our love of life precedes our being-towards-death, before boldly mapping out a new social pact, founded on (...) the structures of existence that her phenomenology of nourishment reveals. (shrink)

Neo-Humean instrumentalists hold that anagent's reasons for acting are grounded in theagent's desires. Numerous objections have beenleveled against this view, but the mostcompelling concerns the problem of ``aliendesires'' – desires with which the agent doesnot identify. The standard version ofneo-Humeanism holds that these desires, likeany others, generate reasons for acting. Avariant of neo-Humeanism that grounds anagent's reasons on her values, rather than allof her desires, avoids this implication, but atthe cost of denying that we have reasons to acton innocent whims. (...) A version of neo-Humeanismthat holds that an agent has reason to satisfyall of her desires that are not in conflictwith her values appears to allow us to grantthe reason-giving force of innocent whims whiledenying the reason-giving force of alien desires. (shrink)

"Heidegger on Being a Sexed or Gendered Human Being" is my contribution to a Symposium dedicated to the topic "Heidegger's idea of the human being." Editor Scott Campbell requested that participants (myself, Kevin Aho, Jesús Adrián Escudero, Tricia Glazebrook, Róisín Lally, and Iain Thomson) write a 1000 word statement addressing this question. Participants read each others contributions and submitted a 500 word response. This is my original statement.

In his latest book, Michael Devitt rejects Chomsky’s mentalist conception of linguistics. The case against Chomsky is based on two principal claims. First, that we can separate the study of linguistic competence from the study of its outputs: only the latter belongs to linguistic inquiry. Second, Chomsky’s account of a speaker’s competence as consisiting in the mental representation of rules of a grammar for his language is mistaken. I shall argue, first, that Devitt fails to make a case for separating (...) the study of outputs from the study of competence, and second, that Devitt mis-characterises Chomsky’s account of competence, and so his objections miss their target. Chomsky’s own views come close to a denial that speaker’s have knowledge of their language. But a satisfactory account of what speakers are able to do will need to ascribe them linguistic knowledge that they use to speak and understand. I shall explore a conception of speaker’s knowledge of language that confirrns Chomsky’s mentalist view of linguistics but which is immune to Devitt’s criticism. (shrink)

What does Martin Heidegger say about sex or gender? According to most accounts, including Derrida’s influential essay “Geschlecht: Sexual Difference, Ontological Difference,” Heidegger makes a marginal reference to sex in a 1928 Marburg lecture later translated as The Metaphysical Foundations of Logic (GA 26). However, an earlier allusion to sexual difference appears in a 1923 Freiburg lecture, translated as Ontology—the Hermeneutics of Facticity (GA 63) where he explains why he uses the term “Dasein” instead of “man” in his existential analytic. (...) “Man” carries his own historical baggage, representing a living being endowed with reason, as well as a pregiven understanding of what it means to be a person. This latter definition has its roots in a Judeo-Christian tradition where “man” is created in the image of God as the first born of many “brethren.” In a perplexing move, Heidegger then cites biblical passages to highlight the sexed emergence of man in Genesis as he poses the question, “Problem: What is woman?” (GA 63, 22/18). This chapter untangles what it means for Heidegger to ask such a question, particularly as he leaves it unanswered and seemingly negligible in his pursuit of a hermeneutics of facticity. Heidegger states, “Hermeneutics is itself not a philosophy. It wishes only to place an object which has hitherto fallen into forgetfulness before today’s philosophers for their ‘well-disposed consideration’” (GA 63, 20/16). I place the object of sex/gender facticity before today’s philosophers, situating the “Problem: What is woman?” within the context of Heidegger’s larger ontological project, namely to rediscover the question of being. Captured in the eponymous title Ontology—the Hermeneutics of Facticity is the insight that the study of being (ontology) can only be carried out as an interpretive non-objectifying process (hermeneutics) of our existence at a particular time in history (facticity). What does it mean to exist as a certain sex or gender during a particular time? How are sex and gender related to the question of being and the ontological difference? How are we defining sex and gender and to which term does Heidegger refer? Throughout this chapter, I will examine a few instances where Heidegger reckons with the sex/gender question. By posing the inquiry, “Problem: What is Woman?” within the parameters of Heidegger’s larger ontological project, I suggest that sex and gender must be fluid categories insofar as such properties describe the “whatness” of our existence rather than the “how” of our world-forming. That is, Dasein is neutral with respect to these categories as such attributes only show up after a time reckoning with an original position of care-lessness. I also suggest that Heidegger privileges sex/gender facticity in undergirding such neutrality as he contests Christian origin stories of the flesh (GA 63) and evolutionary theories associated with the Lebensphilosophie of his time (GA 26). Finally, I conclude by demonstrating how Heidegger’s distinction between Körper and Leib further upholds sex and gender fluidity. (shrink)

Techniques from behavioral economics—nudges—may help physicians increase pediatric vaccine compliance, but critics have objected that nudges can undermine autonomy. Since autonomy is a centrally important value in healthcare decision-making contexts, it counts against pediatric vaccination nudges if they undermine parental autonomy. Advocates for healthcare nudges have resisted the charge that nudges undermine autonomy, and the recent bioethics literature illustrates the current intractability of this debate. This article rejects a principle to which parties on both sides of this debate sometimes seem (...) committed: that nudges are morally permissible only if they are consistent with autonomy. Instead, I argue that, at least in the case of pediatric vaccination, some autonomy-undermining nudges may be morally justified. This is because parental autonomy in pediatric decision-making is not as morally valuable as the autonomy of adult patients, and because the interests of both the vaccinated child and other members of the community can sometimes be weighty enough to justify autonomy-infringing pediatric vaccination nudges. This article concludes with a set of worries about the effect of pediatric vaccination nudges on parent-physician relationships, and it calls on the American Academy of Pediatrics to draw on scientific and bioethics research to develop guidelines for the use of nudges in pediatric practice and, in particular, for the use of pediatric vaccination nudges. (shrink)

There is widespread consensus that present patterns of consumption could lead to the permanent impossibility of maintaining those patterns and, perhaps, the existence of the human race. While many patterns of consumption qualify as ‘sustainable’ there is one in particular that deserves greater attention: virtual consumption. We argue that virtual consumption — the experience of authentic consumptive experiences replicated by alternative means — has the potential to reduce the deleterious consequences of real consumption by redirecting some consumptive behavior from shifting (...) material states to shifting information states. (shrink)

Using Ursula K. Le Guin’s The Left Hand of Darkness as an inspirational backdrop, a novel whose story unfolds on a genderless planet that nevertheless relies on reproductive sex for the sake of generativity, this paper tackles the sex/gender debate, its entanglements with procreation, and its consequences for transgender pregnancies. More specifically, I analyze three issues that pose barriers to thinking about a more inclusive reproductive ethics: state-sanctioned sterilization, non-reproductive futurism, and access to assisted reproductive technology.

Stewart Cohen argues that much contemporary epistemological theorizing is hampered by the fact that ‘epistemic justification’ is a term of art and one that is never given any serious explication in a non-tendentious, theory-neutral way. He suggests that epistemologists are therefore better off theorizing in terms of rationality, rather than in terms of ‘epistemic justification’. Against this, I argue that even if the term ‘epistemic justification’ is not broadly known, the concept it picks out is quite familiar, and partly because (...) it’s a term of art, justification talk is a better vehicle for philosophical theorizing. ‘Rational’ is too unclear for our philosophical purposes, and the fact that ‘epistemic justification’ gets fleshed out by appeal to substantive, controversial theses is no obstacle to its playing the needed role in epistemological theorizing. (shrink)

Classically, gratitude is a tri-polar construal, logically ordering a benefactor, a benefice, and a beneficiary in a favour-giving-receiving situation. Grammatically, the poles are distinguished and bound together by the prepositions ”to’ and ”for’; so I call this classic concept ”to-for’ gratitude. Classic religious gratitude follows this schema, with God as the benefactor. Such gratitude, when felt, is a religious experience, and a reliable readiness or ”habit’ of such construal is a religious virtue. However, atheists have sometimes felt an urge or (...) need for an analogous experience and virtue of gratitude, and theists sometimes feel intellectual discomfort with classical theistic gratitude on consideration of the misfortunes that characterize our life along with its blessings. In response, another conception of religious gratitude has been attempted, a construal that lacks the to-for structure. This paper probes the significance of the benefactor for gratitude, both secular and religious, and, with Søren Kierkegaard’s help, some features of the theology of classical religious gratitude that dissolve the problem of misfortunes. (shrink)

This article addresses three questions about well-being. First, is well-being future-sensitive? I.e., can present well-being depend on future events? Second, is well-being recursively dependent? I.e., can present well-being depend on itself? Third, can present and future well-being be interdependent? The third question combines the first two, in the sense that a yes to it is equivalent to yeses to both the first and second. To do justice to the diverse ways we contemplate well-being, I consider our thought and discourse about (...) well-being in three domains: everyday conversation, social science, and philosophy. This article’s main conclusion is that we must answer the third question with no. Present and future well-being cannot be interdependent. The reason, in short, is that a theory of well-being that countenances both future-sensitivity and recursive dependence would have us understand a person’s well-being at a time as so intricately tied to her well-being at other times that it would not make sense to consider her well-being an aspect of her state at particular times. It follows that we must reject either future-sensitivity or recursive dependence. I ultimately suggest, especially in light of arguments based on assumptions of empirical research on well-being, that the balance of reasons favors rejecting future-sensitivity. (shrink)

Florence Ashley has argued that requiring patients with gender dysphoria to undergo an assessment and referral from a mental health professional before undergoing hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is unethical and may represent an unconscious hostility towards transgender people. We respond, first, by showing that Ashley has conflated the self-reporting of symptoms with self-diagnosis, and that this is not consistent with the standard model of informed consent to medical treatment. Second, we note that the model of informed consent involved in cosmetic (...) surgery resembles the model Ashley defends, and that psychological assessment and referral is recognised as an important aspect of such a model. Third, we suggest that the increased prevalence of psychiatric morbidity in the transgender population arguably supports the requirement of assessment and referral from a mental health professional prior to undergoing HRT. (shrink)

Comments and replies from the 2021 Eastern APA book symposium on Jill North's Physics, Structure, and Reality.

Certain advocates of the so-called “neo-logicist” movement in the philosophy of mathematics identify themselves as “neo-Fregeans” (e.g., Hale and Wright), presenting an updated and revised version of Frege’s form of logicism. Russell’s form of logicism is scarcely discussed in this literature and, when it is, often dismissed as not really logicism at all (in light of its assumption of axioms of infinity, reducibility and so on). In this paper I have three aims: firstly, to identify more clearly the primary meta-ontological (...) and methodological differences between Russell’s logicism and the more recent forms; secondly, to argue that Russell’s form of logicism offers more elegant and satisfactory solutions to a variety of problems that continue to plague the neo-logicist movement (the bad company objection, the embarrassment of richness objection, worries about a bloated ontology, etc.); thirdly, to argue that neo-Russellian forms of logicism remain viable positions for current philosophers of mathematics. (shrink)

This article explores the meeting of two approaches towards philosophy and education: the philosophy for children approach advocated by Lipman and others, and Schmid’s philosophical concept of Lebenskunst. Schmid explores the concept of the beautiful or good life by asking what is necessary for each individual to be able to develop their own art of living and which aspects of life are significant when shaping a good and beautiful life. One element of Schmid’s theory is the practical application of philosophy (...) through the notions of Bildung, reflection, prudence and practical wisdom, as well as the requirement for each individual to take responsibility for actively shaping their life as an artwork. In this sense, each person is the artist responsible for living their own beautiful life. We argue that there are useful parallels between Schmid’s concept of the art of living and P4C, such as the ideal of a holistic philosophy that is “lived.” The pragmatic approach of P4C focuses on the embodied learner who practices critical, caring and creative thinking. Both P4C and Schmid’s theory are reminiscent of the Aristotelian notion of practical wisdom, which allows for an approach to an education for life that prepares students to develop their own art of living. (shrink)

Le climat politique actuel en France abonde de débats à propos de l’identité nationale et du voile; en fait, le voile est devenu un symbole séparant l’idée d’une nation française et d’une nation islamique. Cependant, peu d’attention est portée sur la façon dont la perception de la différence de la femme est essentielle à la formation du citoyen français. Au lieu de se demander simplement “que veut dire être Français?” une seconde interrogation devrait suivre sur la façon dont se construit (...) la femme voilée dans la société française. En faisant appel à la philosophie de Hegel, les réflexions philosophiques employées pour ce projet cherchent à poser de nouvelles questions pouvant éclairer le débat sur l’identité nationale: la femme voilée est-elle l’Antigone des temps modernes? Quel est l’enjeu de dévoiler la femme voilée? D’où vient ce désir de la dévoiler? (shrink)

This text is a reply to Dana S. Belu's Heidegger, Reproductive Technology, and the Motherless Age, as part of an Author Meets Critics panel at the 2021 Heidegger Circle, hosted by Roisin Lally at Gonzaga University.

1) Introduction. 2) The key libertarian insight into property and orthodox libertarianism’s philosophical confusion. 3) Clearer distinctions for applying to what follows: abstract liberty; practical liberty; moral defences; and critical rationalism. 4) The two dominant (‘Lockean’ and ‘Hobbesian’) conceptions of interpersonal liberty. 5) A general account of libertarianism as a subset of classical liberalism and defended from a narrower view. 6) Two abstract (non-propertarian, non-normative) theories of interpersonal liberty developed and defended: ‘the absence of interpersonal initiated imposed constraints on want-satisfaction’, (...) abbreviated to ‘no initiated imposed costs’; and ‘no imposed costs’. 7) Practical implications for both main abstract conceptions of liberty derived and compared. 8) How this positive analysis relates to morals. 9) Concluding conjectures: the main abstract theory of liberty captures the relevant interpersonal conception; the new paradigm of libertarianism solves the old one’s problems. (shrink)

The concern of deductive logic is generally viewed as the systematic recognition of logical principles, i.e., of logical truths. This paper presents and analyzes different instantiations of the three main interpretations of logical principles, viz. as ontological principles, as empirical hypotheses, and as true propositions in virtue of meanings. I argue in this paper that logical principles are true propositions in virtue of the meanings of the logical terms within a certain linguistic framework. Since these principles also regulate and control (...) the process of deduction in inquiry, i.e., they are prescriptive for the use of language and thought in inquiry, I argue that logic may, and should, be seen as an instrument or as a way of proceeding (modus procedendi) in inquiry. (shrink)

The overarching argument of Currie’s Rock, Bone, and Ruin is that we should be optimistic rather than pessimistic about what the historical sciences can tell us, even about the deep past. To adopt either of these two positions is to take a stance on how the historical sciences tend to perform—on whether they tend to do well, or poorly, when it comes to informing us about the past.

This paper argues that, although Margaret Cavendish’s main philosophical contributions are not in philosophy of religion, she makes a case for a defense of God, in spite of the worst sorts of harms being present in the world. Her arguments about those harms actually presage those of contemporary feminist ethicists, which positions Cavendish’s scholarship in a unique position: it makes a positive theodical contribution, by relying on evils that contemporary atheists think are the best evidence against the existence of God. (...) To demonstrate that Cavendish’s work should be considered as early modern feminist theodicy, this paper will briefly introduce the contemporary feminist worry about theodicy as a project, show that Cavendish shares the contemporary feminist view about situated evil, and argue that her theodicy aims for agreement about how to eradicate great moral evils while preserving free will—and so, carves out a space for future female philosophers of religion who aim to be agents of healing in the face of such evil. (shrink)

This article argues that postwar Seventeen magazine, a publication deeply invested in enforcing heteronormativity and conventional models of girlhood and womanhood, was in fact a more complex and multivocal serial text whose editors actively sought out, cultivated, and published girls’ creative and intellectual work. Seventeen's teen-authored “Curl Up and Read” book review columns, published from 1958 through 1969, are examples of girls’ creative intellectual labor, introducing Seventeen's readers to fiction and nonfiction which ranged beyond the emerging “young-adult” literature of the (...) period. Written by young people – including thirteen-year-old Eve Kosofsky (later Sedgwick) – who perceived Seventeen to be an important publication venue for critical work, the “Curl Up and Read” columns are literary products in their own right, not simply juvenilia. Seventeen provided these young authors the opportunity to publish their work in a forum which offered girl readers and writers opportunities for intellectual development and community. (shrink)

In Nicomachean Ethics V.6 Aristotle contrasts political justice with household justice, paternal justice, and despotic justice. My paper expands upon Aristotle’s sometimes enigmatic remarks about political justice through an examination of his account of justice within the oikia or ‘household’. Understanding political justice requires explicating the concepts of freedom and equality, but for Aristotle, the children and wife within the household are free people even if not citizens, and there exists proportionate equality between a husband and wife. Additionally, Aristotle’s articulation (...) and defence of political justice arises out of his examination of despotic justice in the first book of the Politics. Not only are the polis and the oikia similar insofar as they are associations, but Nicomachean Ethics VIII.9–11 suggests they are even isomorphic with respect to justice and friendship. Thus, in this paper I explore the relationships between father and son, husband and wife, master and slave, and between siblings in order to see what they tell us about Aristotle’s understanding of freedom, equality, and justice. (shrink)

Health care providers (HCPs) are routinely placed into morally challenging situations that have the potential to cause moral distress. This is especially true for HCPs working in the military, whether they are on deployment outside their typical contexts of practice such as in disaster relief (e.g., Haiti and the Ebola missions in West Africa), or in more typically military settings such as peace keeping or armed conflicts (e.g., Afghanistan, Syria). Moral distress refers to “painful feelings and/or psychological disequilibrium” (Nilsson, Sjöberg, (...) Kallenberg, & Larsson, 2011, p. 50) that occur when an individual is aware of a morally appropriate action in a moral dilemma but obstruction prevents them from carrying it out, or when in a situation where they must choose between upholding equally treasured but conflicting moral values. Similarly, moral distress can occur when faced with a ‘tragic choice’ where all available courses of action require something of moral significance to be given up, such as surgical triage in a mass casualty event (Hunt, Sinding, & Schwartz, 2012). In the literature, moral distress has been connected to negative psychological effects and even stress related mental health issues including compassion fatigue, burnout, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Owen & Wanzer, 2014; Gustafsson, Eriksson, Strandberg, & Norberg, 2010; Litz, et al., 2009). (shrink)

Jacopo Baboni Schilingi’s interactive musical compositions Argo and Terra play with time, space, and material sound to capture a symbiotic relationship between technology and the most intimate process fundamental to life: breathing. Argo reacts to the artist’s respiration in “real time,” generating an “infinite” sequence of diverse musical arrangements that question the relation between the human body and technology and contingency and programming. Noting the egotistical tendencies of artists, Schilingi likens himself to Odysseus, the master of Argo, the name given (...) to his faithful technological invention. This theme of mastery is revisited in Terra where Schilingi’s hands, covered in sensors, manipulate both the musical composition and the dance movements of a female body, a body whose fertile tension both emerges and withdraws in a battle akin to Heidegger’s earth/world strife. This chapter provides a hermeneutic reading of Argo and Terra within a Heideggerian framework that does not, as Luce Irigaray has noted, forget air. Irigaray states, “Air does not show itself. As such, it escapes as (a) being. It allows itself to be forgotten.” Schilingi’s generative music makes air visible and hauntingly audible, as the music can only be stopped when the artist’s life comes to an end. (shrink)

ABSTRACT This article takes Judith Butler’s epistemological problem of “framing” alongside Dana S. Belu’s notion of “reproductive enframing” to analyze whose bodies lie outside the borders of who is considered the appropriate reproductive citizen. Are all bodies subject to reproductive enframing under a totalizing technological ideology that Martin Heidegger refers to as Gestell? Or, does Belu’s notion of “partial enframing” allow a space to queer, or upset, our current understanding of such ideology? By queering the way that we currently view (...) assisted reproductive technology, can we widen the frame or cross its borders? In this article, I am primarily concerned with the necessity to queer French reproductive policy, though the questions I raise can be extended to any critiques of ART. (shrink)

In her Dinny Gordon series (1958–1965), junior novelist Anne Emery’s heroine manifests intellectual desire, a passionate engagement in the life of the mind along with the desire to connect with like-minded others. Within a genre which focused on socialization and dating, in Dinny, Emery normalizes a studious, inner-directed, yet feminine heroine, passionate about ancient history rather than football captains. Emery’s endorsement of the pleasure Dinny takes in intellectual work, and the friends and boyfriends Dinny collects, challenge stereotypes of intellectual girls (...) as dateless isolates while suggesting an alternative model of girlhood operating within apparent conformism to postwar “good girl” standards. (shrink)

What kind of rhetoric frames French reproductive policy debate? Who does such policies exclude? Through an examination of the “American import” of gender studies, along with an analysis of France’s Catholic heritage and secular politics, I argue that an unwavering belief in sexual difference as the foundation of French society defines the productive reproductive citizen. Sylviane Agacinski is perhaps the most vocal public philosopher who has framed the terms of reproductive policy debate in France, building an oppositional platform to reproductive (...) technology around anthropological assertions of sexual difference. This paper engages with Agacinski to examine rhetorical claims of sexual difference and how such claims delayed passage of France’s revised bioethics legislation that extends access of assisted reproductive technology (ART) to “all women.” Though the “PMA pour toutes” [ART for all women] legislation was eventually passed, such rhetoric motivated the explicit exclusion of all trans person from its extension, thus hardly permitting ART to all women. (shrink)

A feminist reading of how Heidegger may have responded to an unanswered questioned he posed in 1923, "Problem: What is woman?" while using his thought to better understand how contemporary society replies to questions in the realms of law, bioethics, pedagogy, and politics.

This article examines a fundamental question of justice in global health. Is it ethically preferable to provide a larger number of people with cheaper treatments that are less effective (or more toxic), or to restrict treatments to a smaller group to provide a more expensive but more effective or less toxic alternative? We argue that choosing to provide less effective or more toxic interventions to a larger number of people is favored by the principles of utility, equality, and priority for (...) those worst-off. Advocates are mistaken to demand that medical care provided in low-income and middle-income countries should be the same as in high-income countries. (shrink)

This paper uses the figure of the nomad from the work of Rosi Braidoti to critically examine rhetoric about vaccine and masking mandates, and the science of covid more broadly. I draw out the tensions and ambivalence felt as we navigate this on-going crisis in ways epitomized by the phrase “I have a healthy mistrust of authority, and I am still vaccinated.” Though ambivalent, the nomadic subject finds an affirmative ethics, navigating the “right” response to incite positive change and expose (...) our current states of subjectivity. Recognizing the ambivalence of this state may be useful for feminists who critique medicine for its historical sexist and racist “objectivism,” while also supporting medical science and trust in the case of vaccine mandates. (shrink)

On Oct. 24, 2019, French philosopher Sylviane Agacinski was scheduled to speak at the Université de Bordeaux-Montaigne on « l’être humain à l’époque de sa reproductibilité technique » [the human being in the era of its technological reproducibility]. Amidst “violent threats” and their purported inability to assure the safety of Agacinski, the organizers cancelled the event. Agacinski and other French intellectuals lament what they perceive to be part of a “drifting liberticide”, a form of censorship that forbids the exchange of (...) ideas and forecloses open space for debate. The story goes that Agacinski, notable for her staunch opposition to surrogacy and extending assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) to non- heterosexual couples, as well as her anthropological claim that the fabric of our social order relies on the heteronormative structure of sexual difference, has been silenced. In a communiqué to the university, student organizations such as Riposte Trans and Mauvais Genre-s pleaded “no platform”, indicating that Agacinski’s reactionary homophobic and transphobic positions run contrary to the university’s mission of safeguarding against discrimination. What to do when an incitement to (epistemic) violence masks itself as free speech? Bring Sara Ahmed’s hammer to France. (shrink)

Attempts to evaluate a belief or argument on the basis of its cause or origin are usually condemned as committing the genetic fallacy. However, I sketch a number of cases in which causal or historical factors are logically relevant to evaluating a belief, including an interesting abductive form that reasons from the best explanation for the existence of a belief to its likely truth. Such arguments are also susceptible to refutation by genetic reasoning that may come very close to the (...) standard examples given of supposedly fallacious genetic reasoning. (shrink)

ABSTRACT‘Exaltation views’ of humility are grounded on a kenotic view of humility, such that divine blessing comes proportionate to the extent to which an agent humbles herself. This article rejects exaltation views of humility which define humility kenotically, justify their arguments from a divine hiddenness perspective, and which conclude that divine concurrence with evil is justified as long as all humble believers eventually are exalted and blessed. Rather, I will contend that exaltation views misunderstand the meaning of both ‘humility’ and (...) ‘exaltation,’ even from their own Christian standpoint. I ultimately offer an alternate response to the problem of evil based on an existentially grounded conception of ‘humility’, which provides for a transmuted turn away from individual kenotic acts and toward community to transform those who suffer from atrocities. (shrink)

Cet article parle de la nécessité de repenser la notion de la différence sexuelle après le mal appropriation de celle-ci par « la manif pour tous ». Chaque tentative de former une ontologie fondée sur cette différence risque une favorisation de l’hétéronormativité et de l’essentialisme. En me servant de la philosophie d’Elizabeth Grosz sur Darwin, j’essaie de reformuler la différence sexuelle en des termes positifs et de voir celle-ci comme une notion qui facilite (plutôt que limite) la diversité. Le texte (...) est divisé en deux parties : 1. L’instrumentalisation de la différence sexuelle pour promouvoir l’hétéronormativité, et 2. Repenser une ontologie fondée sur la différence sexuelle. (shrink)

While the 2010 EPSRC principles for robotics state a set of 5 rules of what ‘should’ be done, I argue they should differentiate between legal obligations and ethical demands. Only if we make this difference can we state clearly what the legal obligations already are, and what additional ethical demands we want to make. I provide suggestions how to revise the rules in this light and how to make them more structured.

Millikan's account of substance concepts is based on a notion of “substance” expanded from realist notions of individuals and natural kinds. Her metaphysical notion, based on “inductive potential,” is shown to be too puristic and needs to incorporate cognizing subjects. This could preserve the realist/nondescriptionist insight that the extension of substances is determined by the world.